Cookbook:Herbs and Spices
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Cookbook | Recipes | Ingredients | Equipment | Techniques | Cookbook Disambiguation Pages | Ingredients | Basic foodstuffs
Herbs and spices are concentrated sources of flavoring from plants, used in small quantities to flavor foods.[1][2][3]
Characteristics
editTerminology
editOpinions differ on the precise definitions of the terms "herb" and "spice". Both are derived from plants and contain concentrated flavor compounds. Generally, herbs refer to the soft, green, leafy, parts of plants;[2][4][5] they may be used fresh or dried. Spices, on the other hand, come from the rest of the plant, such as the bark, root, flower, fruit, or seed;[2][4][5][6] they are almost always dried.[4][7] In some cases, a single plant can produce both an herb and a spice, as with cilantro leaf (herb) and coriander seed (spice),[4][8] as well as dill (herb) and dillseed (spice).[7] Some sources consider herbs a sub-category of spice,[9][10] while others consider the two to be separate groups in the seasoning category. Some consider herbs to become spices once dried.[11] Salt is not a spice—it is a seasoning, but it does not come from plants.[12]
The term aromatic may also come up in cooking. Here, aromatics typically refer to plant-derived ingredients that specifically contribute a strong, pleasant aroma to foods.[7] Many herbs and spices are aromatics, though some are not (e.g. chile pepper), and some ingredients that are not usually considered herbs or spices are indeed considered aromatics (e.g. fresh carrot, onion, etc).[7][13]
Flavor and aroma
editThe unifying characteristic of both herbs and spices is strong and distinct flavoring and/or aroma. Each herb or spice contains many flavor/aroma compounds (sometimes called essential oils),[2][12] and it is the specific combination and proportion of these compounds that results in a given herb/spice's particular flavor.[2][3][14] All of these compounds are volatile, meaning they disperse readily through the air and are perceived by the nose,[2] which is what we detect as flavor when we consume the spices.[12] The more volatile a compound, the more quickly and strongly we perceive it but the more quickly it is driven off and lost,[12] such as by heat.[3]
Flavor and aroma compounds in herbs and spices can be classified into a few groups. The first group, called the terpenes, comprises a wide range of compounds containing five (or more)-carbon chains.[2][3][14] They are generally quite volatile, with the smaller terpenes being even more so.[12] Terpenes are also reactive, and they can produce new flavors as they react under air and heat.[12] Terpenes can also be broken down into sub-classes of fragrant (e.g. piney, floral), warming, earthy, citrus, and penetrating (e.g. camphor, eucalyptus).[1][3][14] The next common class of compounds is the phenols. These confer very distinctive aromas that often dominate the flavor profile of an herb or spice.[1][2][3][14] Tannins are a type of polyphenol that confers astringency to foods.[12] Esters and aldehydes tend to result in flavors we perceive as fruity,[1][12] and pyrazines provide smoky and toasted characters.[1] The last major group confers what we call pungency, typically by causing sensations of pain and heat.[1][2][12] This is what we know as "hotness" or "spiciness",[2] and it is typically sensed by taste only and not by aroma.[1] The capsaicin in chiles, piperin in pepper, and thiocyanates in horseradish and mustard all produce pungent flavors.[2][12]
Fresh vs dry
editHerbs and spices may be available fresh or dried, with spices almost always the latter.[10][15] Even when accounting for loss of volatile oils, the dried form is usually more potent due to concentration.[15] Often, a recipe will require modifications if the fresh version is used because the flavors do change in the drying process. Fresh herbs are nearly always better than dried herbs, as some subtle aromatics are lost during drying, but many dried herbs are still useful for their convenience.[16]
Whole vs ground
editDried spices and herbs may be available whole or finely ground.[6][7] In many cases, the ground form is required to properly flavor the dish, especially if it will not be cooked long.[17] However, whole spices keep their flavor longer than ground spices, and whole spices can be toasted for additional flavor.
Selection and storage
editWhen choosing fresh herbs, look for those with bright green foliage, with no wilting, rotting, or discoloration.[10][15] They should generally be stored in the fridge, where it's important to keep them moist without allowing them to rot.[3] One way to do this is to place the stems in a cup of water; you can also wrap the herbs in a damp towel.[7][9][18] They will keep for up to 3 weeks.[18] Freezing will extend the shelf life of fresh herbs, but it will ruin the texture and appearance—this is typically fine when adding the herbs to a cooked dish, but do not freeze herbs destined for use as a garnish.[2][3] Freezing the herbs in water or oil will help shield them from oxidative damage.[3]
The quality of dried herbs and spices is tied to the amount of essential oils they contain.[9] Once dried, herbs and spices do not go bad, per se. Instead, they simply lose their flavor over time as essential oils degrade or evaporate.[9][18][19] To delay this loss of flavor, make sure to store spices in an airtight container away from light, heat, and moisture.[2][11][18] Whole spices will keep for upwards of a year,[2][10][19] since they have less surface area, while ground spices last only a few months,[2][3][19] though the lifespan extends in the freezer.[3][9] If you can swing it, it's best to purchase most spices whole and grind them fresh when you're ready to use them.[6][11] The exception to this rule is if you go through spices very quickly and/or use spices that are very difficult to grind (e.g. cinnamon). As for dried herbs, those that grow in hot climates (e.g. thyme, oregano, rosemary)[3] tend to keep the best.[2][18] Before using dried herbs or spices, give them a smell to check their quality—if they smell musty in a way that is out of character or if they seem dull, it's best to replace them.[7][16] If you do replace spices, start out by seasoning with smaller amounts that you may be used to, since the fresh spices will be more potent.[17]
Techniques
editDrying
editTo extend shelf life and concentrate flavor, herbs and spices can be dried. The key here is to do so as gently as possible in order to reduce loss of flavor.[2][3] Note that delicate herbs tend to lose more flavor than hardy herbs and spices. If drying is done poorly or to an unsuitable herb, it is likely to lose its characteristic flavor as its volatile compounds are driven off.[2][3] The simplest and gentlest way to dry is in a well-ventilated location in the shade. Sun-drying or drying in an oven or heat-based dehydrator will drive off more flavor, and freeze-drying preserves the original flavor with the highest fidelity.[2][3] If you would like to oven-dry, do so at the lowest setting and keep an eye on them.
Breakdown
editMake sure to dry fresh herbs before cutting them up, and use a very sharp knife.[10][18] If you want to release the maximum amount of flavor from a fresh herb or spice, smashing, bruising, and grinding will break down the cellular structure and encourage this release.[10]
Toasting
editRoasting/toasting spices encourages the release of volatile compounds and encourages the transformation of some compounds into other flavorful varieties (often pyrazines).[3][16] This can be done in a dry pan or a medium oven (250°F/120°C);[3][10] be careful not to scorch the spices, which will make them unpleasantly bitter.[10]
Pairing
editOne key to pairing herbs and spices is to match those that share a linking flavor group.[1] Many cuisines have developed traditional blends and pairings.[11]
Cooking
editThe majority of the flavorful compounds in herbs and spices are more soluble in fat (and often alcohol) than water.[18] This impacts how the spices are used. For example, these flavors are unlikely to penetrate deep into meat, so do not expect to be able to significantly flavor large pieces of meat simply by marinating in an herb/spice mixture.[2] Whole herbs and spices cooked in a mixture containing fat will more readily flavor the mixture,[18] and low-fat dishes will need to cook for lower and slower in order to become thoroughly flavored.
Hardy and whole herbs/spices will release their flavor less readily than delicate and ground herbs and spices.[7][17] Additionally, hot preparations will extract the flavors faster than cold preparations.[17] Keep this in mind when determining how long to cook spices for, since you want to ensure sufficient time for the flavors to permeate the dish but not cook them for so long that their flavor evaporates.[17][18]
The volatility of flavor compounds in herbs and spices means that they can be used for flavoring in steaming and smoking. The heat in the enclosed cooking vessel will encourage the release of the compounds, allowing them to reach the food even if the spices are not touching it directly.[2]
Scaling recipes
editIf you are scaling a recipe, don't assume that the spices will scale directly. Instead, use the quantities as a guide, but start with lower amounts and taste continuously to prevent over-spicing.[10] You can usually add more, but you cannot remove.[17]
Steeping
editWhen steeping whole herbs and spices that you want to remove from a dish later, you have a couple options. The first is to make a small sachet of cheesecloth to tie around the spices.[17] Specialized perforated metal or mesh containers (such as tea steepers) can also be used to the same effect.
Use
editHerbs and spices are used in just about every kind of preparation—from savory to sweet, solid to liquid—to add complexity of flavor.[11] More tender fresh herbs may also be used as attractive garnishes to food.[18] Various herbs and spices may be combined to create blends used in specific cuisines and even individual dishes.[11] Different cultures use different sets of spices and herbs to give the dishes their distinguishing taste and flavour. South Asian cuisines often use whole spices that they roast freshly before grinding for use, maximising the flavors and aromas released into the food.
Substitution
editWhen substituting in recipes, one part dried herbs is approximately equal to three parts fresh herbs.[10][18]
Index
editRecipes
editReferences
edit- ↑ a b c d e f g h Farrimond, Stuart (2018-11-06). The Science of Spice: Understand Flavor Connections and Revolutionize Your Cooking. National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-1-4654-7557-2.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u McGee, Harold (2007-03-20). On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4165-5637-4.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Gibson, Mark (2018-01-04). Food Science and the Culinary Arts. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-811817-7.
- ↑ a b c d Davidson, Alan (2014-01-01). Jaine, Tom (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Food. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780199677337.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-967733-7.
- ↑ a b Zeece, Michael (2020). Introduction to the chemistry of food. London San Diego Cambridge Oxford: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-809434-1.
- ↑ a b c The Culinary Institute of America (CIA) (2011-09-13). The Professional Chef. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-42135-2.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h Labensky, Sarah R.; Hause, Alan M.; Martel, Priscilla (2018-01-18). On Cooking: A Textbook of Culinary Fundamentals. Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-444190-0.
- ↑ Wolke, Robert L. (2011-01-12). What Einstein Told His Cook 2: The Sequel: Further Adventures in Kitchen Science. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-07982-1.
- ↑ a b c d e Figoni, Paula (2010-11-09). How Baking Works: Exploring the Fundamentals of Baking Science. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-39267-6.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Kipfer, Barbara Ann (2012-04-11). The Culinarian: A Kitchen Desk Reference. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-544-18603-3.
- ↑ a b c d e f Van Wyk, Ben-Erik (2014-09-26). Culinary Herbs and Spices of the World. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-09183-9.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Provost, Joseph J.; Colabroy, Keri L.; Kelly, Brenda S.; Wallert, Mark A. (2016-05-02). The Science of Cooking: Understanding the Biology and Chemistry Behind Food and Cooking. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-67420-8.
- ↑ This, Hervé (2007-11-15). Kitchen Mysteries: Revealing the Science of Cooking. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-51203-9.
- ↑ a b c d deMan, John M.; Finley, John W.; Hurst, W. Jeffrey; Lee, Chang Yong (2018-02-09). Principles of Food Chemistry. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-63607-8.
- ↑ a b c The Culinary Institute of America (CIA) (2015-02-25). Baking and Pastry: Mastering the Art and Craft. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-92865-3.
- ↑ a b c Ruhlman, Michael (2008). The Elements of Cooking: Translating the Chef's Craft for Every Kitchen. Black Incorporated. ISBN 978-1-86395-143-2.
- ↑ a b c d e f g Gisslen, Wayne (2014-04-15). Professional Cooking. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-118-63672-5.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k Farrimond, Stuart (2017-09-19). The Science of Cooking: Every question answered to perfect your cooking. Penguin. ISBN 978-1-4654-7079-9.
- ↑ a b c El-Waylly, Sohla (2023-11-02). Start Here: Instructions for Becoming a Better Cook. Random House. ISBN 978-1-5299-1408-5.