Mirad Grammar/print version

Mirad, formerly known as Unilingua, is an artificially constructed auxiliary language (conlang) developed and published in 1966 by the now-deceased Paris-based author Noubar Agopoff as a serious medium for easy and logical international communication. Mirad, which means world speech, and is pronounced mee-RAHD, is categorized by constructed language experts as taxonomic or ontological, because its vocabulary is mapped letter-by-letter to a semantic ontology or thesaurus. Also, the word-stock of Mirad is considered a priori, meaning that there is no deliberate association with words or roots in existing natural languages. The vocabulary is from scratch, yet based on internal lexical and semantic rules that help the learner to construct and deconstruct derivations sytematically, logically, mnemonically, and consistently. The author claims in his book Unilingua -- Langue universelle auxiliaire that this language is well-suited for universal, logical communication because it is based on principles already exploited globally by sciences like mathematics and chemistry, where symbolic formulas are constructed in accordance with strict rules and a limited sequence of symbols understood by all practitioners.

Yubjo, ha mir gonbio yansauna gabyuxea dalzeyn. (In the near future, the world will share a common auxiliary language.)

Principles

Mirad is constructed on the following principles:

• Every vowel has numeric, vectorial, scalar, semantic, or grammatical value.
• Every consonant is meaningful either lexically or grammatically.
• Word derivation is systematic, consistent, analogical, and mnemonic.
• Words are as ontologically unambiguous as possible.
• Words are as short and as easy to pronounce as possible.
• Inflection and derivation of words is regular and predictable.
• Word opposites differ only in the stem vowel (iva....happy; uva....sad).
• Words that have similar meanings will share all but one or two letters (iva....happy; ivra ....joyful).
• All words in the language are constructed from fewer than 500 building blocks.
• Vocabulary in specialized and scientific fields is built on internationally agreed conventions.
• The grammatical rules are regular and as simple as possible.
• The vocabulary is totally a priori and neutral and not based on any existing language.
• Formatives (derivational and inflexional prefixes, infixes, and suffixes) are nonexponential, that is, each one has only one purpose or meaning. In other words, the language is non-fusional.

Changes from earlier version

This book contains a revision of the language with additions and modifications to the original. The principal changes are:

• The writing system now consists only of letters of the Latin alphabet, with no diacritics.
• The letter w was added to mark the passive voice of verbs, among other things.
• The letter s was changed to sound like the s in English sun.
• The letter x was changed to sound like the sh in English show.
• The letter c was changed to sound like the ch in English chair.
• The letter h was added, mainly to create a systematic set of determiners like this, that, and every.
• The letter q was added for certain scientific words and outside-imported words such as daiqiri or Qatar.
• Grammatical cases were eliminated and replaced by prepositions.
• Some prepositions and conjunctions were changed or added.
• The definite article ha (the) was introduced.
• Much new vocabulary was added and some words were altered.
• The system of determiners was overhauled.
• The manner of encoding names of chemicals, metrical units, and other entities was changed.
• The language was gender-neutralized but provided the means to mark gender where necessary.
• Zoological and botanical terms in Unilingua were differentiated by semi-random numerical scaling (apet....horse, epet....ox, etc.). This has been changed in Mirad to a systematic prefixation of syllables to the base name where the syllables come from the Linnaean Taxonomy.

Conventions in this book

In this book:

• Words in Mirad are boldfaced.
• Words in English that are translations of Mirad are italicized.
• Technical grammatical terms in English are both boldfaced and italicized.

For example:

• The Mirad word van means that and is a positive subordinating conjunction.

External links

• Earlier version of Mirad (Unilingua)
• Agopoff, author of Unilingua
• Wikipedia: Constructed_Language
• Mirad Thesaurus (a wikibook)
• Mirad Lexicon (a wikibook)

Vocabulary Built on Native Roots

In English, we have many words like ichthyology, which baffle younger speakers of the language, because they are borrowed from a foreign language, in this case, classical Greek. This word, which could just as easily and more rationally be the Anglicized fishlore, means the science of fish. If a word in English relates to fish, why is fish not a part of the word? Even for modern day Greeks to understand the word ιχθυολογία (ichthyologia), they have to know the ancient root ιχθύς (ichthys) for fish, which has long been supplanted by the current word everyone uses, ψάρι (psari). What I'm saying is that the vocabulary of English, as is the case in many other natural languages, is a hodgepodge of borrowings, irregular spellings, and words cobbled from obscure roots that have little recognizability for the average speaker.

While English is a melting pot of words, there are some languages that do less borrowing and less non-discriminate formation of words that do not associate with one another through some root or pattern. Icelandic, for example, does not borrow very much from other languages and its words are formed using roots familiar to speakers of that language. The Icelandic word for library is bokasafn, which literally, is book collection ( = saving). Any child in that language knows what the word means immediately, because it is composed of root words that are obvious. The English word library makes sense only if you know the Latin roots libr- (book) and -ary (place of).

Arabic, by contrast, is a language that has a system of word-building based on a rational association of consonants and vowel patterns, such that most words relating to books and writing contain the three consonants k-t-b. Over the centuries, the system has been polluted with irregularities, but at least the consciousness of associations of words based on a root pattern is there and is still used today to coin new words.

In Turkish, the bulk of words having to do with knowledge contain the native root bil. Because of this, most of these words will be grouped on the same pages in a dictionary. For example: bildik known, bildirim announcement, bilecen know-it-all, bilgi knowledge, bilgili knowledgeable, bilgin scholar, etc. A word such as unknowability inevitably contains the root bil and can be learned fairly easily by a young student of the language.

Mirad has a vocabulary-building system with approximately 500 morphemes (word atoms or vocabulary building blocks) that are used to form derived words in the same sense family in accordance with a set of word-building rules. Words that are related semantically will share the same bulk of letters. For example, iva (happy), ivla (glad), and ivra (delighted) share the root morpheme iv- and differ only in one letter. The opposite of happy is derived by switching the vowel in the root morpheme from i to the negative counterpart u, such that uva means sad. Similarly, uvla (woeful) and uvra (tragic) are opposite counterparts to the extended iv- words.

In Mirad, every letter of a word has some semantic or grammatical function. All words are part of a system. If you know the word for to lengthen, then you automatically know the word for to shorten. The rules for deriving new words from existing words are consistent across the language. In Mirad, there is no such thing as irregular conjugation of verbs as in English write, wrote, written. Nouns are pluralized in one way only across the board, unlike the multiple, unpredictable ways German and Arabic words are pluralized. Prepositions have one meaning, as contrasted with the multiple, inscrutable meanings of Russian or Latin prepositions.

Words in Mirad are pronounced as they are written, with no exceptions. One letter is used for one sound. Only Roman letters are used in the alphabet, and there are no pesky diacritics (accents). Word stress is regular.

What if we took this root association to the maximum degree and ensured that all words in a language were constructed on logical, associational, and regular principles with roots that are obvious to the learner? That would be the way Mirad does it.

Deriving Opposites by Vowel-switching

A very simple principle in Mirad is that a good portion of the vocabulary can be guessed by the learner without looking up words in the dictionary. All descriptive adjectives can be changed to their opposite with a simple change of vowel. For example, if you know fia (good), then you automatically know fua (bad). This is possible by knowing the rule of contrastive vowels: i is a positive vowel and contrasts with u, a negative vowel. Similarly, a contrasts with o, so that the opposite of aza (strong) is--you guessed it--oza (weak). In fact, if you know that e is an intermediate vowel, then you understand that eza means moderate. These simple principles of word-building mean that students of the language can cut down on their learning time by at least 50%.

Using Consonants and Vowels to Vary Domains

Another principle is that the beginning and/or closing consonants of a word in Mirad give you clues as to the meaning. All sentient creatures have the final stem consonant t, such that dat (friend), tot (god), at (I), tuzut (artist), and pit (fish) all refer to sentient creatures. The root stems of all words having to do with communication, begin with the letter d, eg. der (to say), dud (answer), dyes (book), dal (speech), etc. The internal vowels of root stems very often indicate concepts such as sky, land, sea or up vs. down, or zeroth, first, second, or toward the speaker vs. away from the speaker, and on and on.

Scalarization

In English, as in many other languages, there was probably some attempt to associate words in this way. Take for example, the series sing, sang, sung, song, singer, songstress or drip, drop, droop, dribble. More often than not, there is very little association among English words that are obviously distinguished by the one feature, size, eg. mountain, hill, knob, bump, pimple. In Mirad, these are all distinguished regularly by a scalarizing enumerative vowel. The Mirad days of the week are not a series of Roman- or Teutonic-related concepts, Moon-day, Tiw's-day, Woden's-day, Thor's-day, Freya's-day, Saturn-day, and Sun-day, all of which are a matter of memorization by the child or student of the language. Mirad days of the week consist rather of a series of words numerically arranged "day-one, day-two, day-three, etc." This is actually the approach taken by quite a few natural languages like Portuguese.

The months, too, ought to be learned in 10 seconds, by knowing that an internal vowel of the root expresses the numerical order of the months. Again, there are some natural languages that do this. By knowing that jiab means month one, January, then by knowing how to count in the language, the word for September can be readily deduced as jiyub (month nine, yu being the number for 9).

Taxonomy

The formulaic language of chemistry is a pretty good likeness of Mirad. There is a world-recognized symbolic, taxonomic relationship between H₂O and C₂O. Similarly, in Mirad, the stem vowels of the names of animals indicate their primary habitat: air, land, sea, or combinations of these. Other combinations of letters indicate whether the animal is domestic, predatory, wild, etc. From then on, its enumeration is based on factors such as commonness, taxonomic relationships, etc. Likewise, with human and animal body terms, the stem vowel indicates location on the body, such as head, trunk, or limbs. Then another vowel delineates in a directional way where on the head: upper, middle, lower, and so forth. Just by looking at the word for a body part for the first time, by knowing the system, you can tell at least approximately that it is, say, a higher joint of the arm. Color words are based on their position on nature's color spectrum. Governmental and courtly powerholders and other hierarchical elements are ranked by an ordinal vowel, eg. adeb (emperor), edeb (monarch), ideb (prince), udeb (duke), etc. The names of the planets are enumerated by their relative distance from the sun, so: amer (planet 1 = Mercury), emer (planet 2 = Mars), imer (planet 3 = Earth), etc. Zoological and botanical names are based on the international Linnean Taxonomy.

Mnemonics

Words in the language can be mnemonically associated to body terms by changing the initial domain consonant accordingly, so, while teb means head, xeb in the x or work/action domain is boss, deb in the social/political domain is leader, etc.

The following chart shows in this mnemonic echoing in action, where the letters before -ub suggest the domain:

Mnemonic Echoing

DOMAIN	WORD
human (body)	tub....arm
work/action	xub....subsidiary, branch
plants	fub....limb, branch, bough(of a tree)
fish	pitub....fin
birds	patub....wing
animal	potub....paw
land-sea animal	peitub....flipper
shoe	tyoyafub....(scuba-diving) flipper
vegetation	vub....shoot, sprig, twig
society/politics	dub....minister, department head
building	tomub....wing (of a building)
land	mub....promontory
river	mifub....oar
things	sub....ramification, offshoot
table	semub....flap (of a table)
rotating things	zyufub....rudder
flat	zyifub....paddle
round	zyub....lobe

Conclusion

Mirad uses many different techniques to short-cut the difficulty of learning new words or recognizing terms. The vowels, consonants, mnemonics, scalarization, taxonomy and many other methods are used to make the vocabulary as rational and intuitive as possible. Unlike in most natural languages, words like snow and sleet are going to have sounds in common in Mirad. I have never found a language other than Mirad where the words for ice, water, and steam are derived from one another even though we all know they are actually all H₂O in different temperature states.

The Alphabet

Mirad uses the Roman alphabet as in Modern English. There is an upper case (majuscules or capital letters) and a lower case (miniscules or small letters). The upper case letters are used for capitalization exactly as in English. Mirad, at least for non-foreign words, uses no diacritic marks such as the brève, the grave accent, or the dieresis. The order of the alphabet is the same as in English. The letters, though, are pronounced as shown in the chart. Note that there is a pattern: The vowel of each Mirad letter name changes to the single vowel letter before it. For example, the vowel in the name for letter f changes to e following the letter e in the alphabetic sequence. The Mirad letter name for j is ji because it is just beyond the vowel letter i in the alphabetic sequence. Uppercase letters have a Mirad letter name beginning in ag, a prefix meaning big.

Alphabet A-N

Lowercase	a	b	c	d		e	f	g	h		i	j	k	l	m	n
Mirad Letter Name	a	ba	ca	da		e	fe	ge	he		i	ji	ki	li	mi	ni
Uppercase	A	B	C	D		E	F	G	H		I	J	K	L	M	N
Mirad Letter Name	aga	agba	agca	agda		age	agfe	agge	aghe		agi	agji	agki	agli	agmi	agni

Alphabet O-Z

Lowercase	o	p	q	r	s	t		u	v	w	x	y	z
Mirad Letter Name	o	po	ko	ro	so	to		u	vu	wu	xu	yu	zu
Uppercase	O	P	Q	R	S	T		U	V	W	X	Y	Z
Mirad Letter Name	ago	agpo	agko	agro	agso	agto		agu	agvu	agwu	agxu	agyu	agzu

The letters c and q are used only to represent words and names imported into Mirad from other languages, or for words in which letters of the alphabet are used to spell out chemical terms, metric units, country names, languages, and other terms based on existing world standards like ISO.

Letter Names

Spelling a word aloud means uttering the word's Mirad letter names in succession left to right. If the letter is a upper case, then the letter name is preceded by ag-....big, eg.:

• anxwa is spelled aloud as a-ni-xu-wu-a
• Mirad is spelled aloud as agmi-i-ro-a-da

Note that age for E and agge for G need to be carefully distinguished. The former, age is pronounced a-ge, while the latter, agge, is pronounced ag-ge.

Capitalization

Capitalization in Mirad is handled almost exactly as in English:

• The first word of a new sentence is capitalized.

• At ife et.....I love you.
• Iyt da: "At ife et."....She said, "I love you."

• All proper nouns are capitalized, including names of people, organizations, books, languages, countries, etc.

• Mirad....Mirad
• Ferom....France
• ha Feromati....the French
• Alica be Flisem....Alice in Wonderland
• ha Yoongun....The Pentagon

• Acronyms are capitalized.

• ZUYX....NATO.
• DXV....FBI.

• If a verb or adjective is based on a proper noun, the proper noun part of the word gets capitalized.

• Deumxer....to Germanify
• loNazixer....to de-Nazify
• Irolim-ulza....Kelly (= Ireland) green.

• The planets and inhabitants of planets are capitalized.

• Ha tyod bi Imer.....The people of Earth.
• Ha Umerati upeye.....The Martians are coming.

• The word god is capitalized if referring to a religion's one, true god, otherwise not.

• Ha toti se futipa.....The gods are angry.
• Fyadilu bu Tot.....Pray to God.
• Van yat fyadilu bu Allah.....Let's pray to Allah.

Unlike in English, though:

• The days of the week, the months of the year, and the seasons are not capitalized.

• juab....Monday
• jieb....February
• jeub....Winter

Punctuation

Punctuation is handled as in English, with the following exception:

• A colon (:) is used in direct quotations, as opposed to the comma (,) used in English, eg.:

He said, "Let there be light."....It da: "Van esu man."

Here is a chart showing punctuation marks and symbols along with their names in Mirad:

Punctuation Marks and Symbols

ENGLISH	SYMBOL	MIRAD
MARKS (siyn)
period	.	nodsiyn
comma	,	grunsiyn
colon	:	ennodsiyn
semi-colon	;	nodgrunsiyn
question mark	?	didsiyn
exclamation point	!	yoksiyn
single quote	'	aona gedsiyn
double quote	"	eona gedsiyn
hyphen	-	naydsiyn
dash, em dash	--	eona nadsiyn
underscore, low line	_	oybnadsiyn
vertical line	|	aonadsiyn
wave dash	~	pyaon nadsiyn
forward slash, solidus	/	zaya kinad
backward slash, reverse solidus	\	zoya kinad
double slash	//	eona kinad
apostrophe	'	oysunsiyn
left parenthesis right parenthesis	( )	zua uzkun yebyujarsiyn zia uzkun yebyujarsiyn
left angle bracket right angle bracket	< ]	zua gun yebyujarsiyn zia gun yebyujarsiyn
left square bracket right square bracket	[ ]	zua izkun yebyujarsiyn zia izkun yebyujarsiyn
left curly bracket right curly bracket	{ }	zua uzyua yebyujarsiyn zia uzyua yebyujarsiyn
ellipsis	...	innodsiyn
caret	^	garsiyn
SYMBOLS (siun)
ampersand	&	aysiun
at sign	@	asiun
percent sign	%	asoynsiun
hash tag, pound sign, number sign	#	sagsiun
asterisk	*	marsiun
dollar sign	?	Usodansiun/

Note: Most of these marks and symbols are on a standard English-language keyboard. Mathematical symbols are not listed here, nor are most accent marks like "grave accent". See the Mathematical Expressions section of Numbers.

Text Direction

Text in Mirad is written from left to right with spaces between words.

Consonants

Consonant graphemes and phonemes

The following chart shows the correspondence of the consonants and their phomemic values in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA):

Correspondence of Consonant Graphemes and Phonemes

Grapheme	b	c	d	f	g	h	j	k	l	m	n	p	q	r	s	t	v	x	z
Phoneme	/b/	/t͡ʃ/	/d/	/f/	/g/	/h/	/ʒ/	/k/	/l/	/m/	/n/	/p/	/k/	/ɽ/	/s/	/t/	/v/	/ʃ/	/z/

Pronunciation of Consonants

The following chart shows the Mirad consonants with their phonemic values in the IPA:

Consonants

		Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		/m/	/n/
Plosive	voiced	/b/	/d/		/g/
	unvoiced	/p/	/t/		/k/
Affricate	voiced
	unvoiced			/t͡ʃ/
Fricative	voiced	/v/	/z/	/ʒ/
	unvoiced	/f/	/s/	/ʃ/		/h/
Approximate			/l/
Flap			/ɽ/

The phonemes /r/ and /l/ are consonant liquids and behave in a special way in forming words in Mirad.

In Mirad, every consonant has a one-to-one correspondence with a single phoneme (ideal sound). Mirad does not use digraphs like sh or ph to represent consonant sounds. There are no double consonants, although sometimes a consonant will come together with the same consonant in the same word, but not the same syllable. There are no silent consonants. Also, there are no letters in "native" Mirad with diacritical marks like é or ñ.

Here are the letters that are pronounced somewhat differently from English:

• The letter x is pronounced like an sh in English, or a ch in French.
• In native Mirad words, h is pronounced like the h in English hand. It is sometimes used to simulate foreign sounds like the ch in Yiddish lachayim (to life!), or German Bach. If h comes at the end of a word, it is silent, but, being a consonant, it can serve to move the stress to the word-final syllable, as in Allah, pronounced a-LA.

• The letter j is pronounced like the zh in Russian Zhivago or the ge in English mirage.

• The letter s is always unvoiced as English ss and never sounds like a z.

• The letter g is always a hard sound as in English gap, not as in English wage.

• The letter c represents the unvoiced affricative sound t͡ʃ like the ch in English church. Some chemical names and metric units use the letter c, such as calilk (chlorine).

• The unvoiced plosives p, t, and k are pronounced without the puff of breath that sometimes follows them in their English counterparts. The corresponding consonants in French are exact equivalents.

• The consonant r should be a flap or trill like the r in Brit. Eng. very or the single, intervocalic r in Spanish pero.

• The consonant q is usually pronounced as a k, but in foreign borrowings or proper names, it may be pronounced according to context.

• The consonants in the Mirad alphabet correspond one-to-one with phonemes. There are no cases of consonant sounds being represented in native words by digraphs as in English ph, sh, ch, or th. For example, the sh sound in English is represented by x in Mirad. The English ch sound is represented in Mirad with the letter c. There are no equivalents in Mirad for the English sounds th in this or the th in think, but the combination th in foreign borrowings is pronounced as it is in the source language.

Here is a chart showing the phonetic values of Mirad consonants:

Consonants

MIRAD CONSONANT/ SEMI-CONSONANT GRAPHEME	IPA	ARTICULATION	NEAREST EQUIVALENTS
b	[b]	unaspirated voiced bilabial plosive	French bon, English boy
c	[tʃ]	unvoiced palato-alveolar affricate	English child, Spanish chico
d	[d]	unaspirated voiced alveolar plosive	French de, English dog
f	[f]	unvoiced labio-dental fricative	English fog
g	[g]	unaspirated voiced velar plosive	French gare, English good (always hard, even before e and i).
h	[h] [x]	glottal fricative	English house (used in some foreign words and names as a kh-like sound like German Bach. Not pronounced at the end of foreign borrowings like Allah or Arkansah.
j	[ʒ]	voiced palatal fricative	French je or English mirage.
k	[k]	unaspirated unvoiced velar fricative	French carte, English skip (without aspiration).
l	[l]	voiced post-alveolar lateral approximant	English love or French bel (never a dark l as in English bell.
m	[m]	voiced bilabial nasal	English mother.
n	[n] [ŋ]	voiced alveolar nasal	English nobody Before g or k, like English fang.
p	[p]	unvoiced bilabial plosive	French pain, English span (without aspiration).
q	-	-	(Only used in foreign words, or some chemical names, where it has various k-like or guttural pronunciations).
r	[r]	alveolar flap	Spanish mira or Italian Roma or British Eng. 'very.
s	[s]	unvoiced alveolar fricative	Always hard as in English safe (never a z sound as in rose).
t	[t]	unaspirated unvoiced alveolar plosive	French tous, English stop (without aspiration).
v	[v]	voiced labial-dental fricative	English very. Spanish and German speakers need to beware: this is not a bilabial consonant, nor is it an f sound.
x	[ʃ]	unvoiced post-alveolar fricative	English shape or French cher
z	/z/	voiced alveolar fricative	English zone. German speakers, beware. Mirad z is pronounced like a German s, as in sehr, not like z as in zehn, which sounds more like ts.

Vowels

Mirad vowels are divided into simple and glided vowels. The simple vowels are single letters, while the complex vowels have one or more semi-vowel glides (y or w) prefixed or suffixed.

Simple Vowels

The Mirad graphemes (alphabetic letters) used to represent the simple vowel phonemes (minimal meaningful sounds) are as follows:

Vowel Graphemes and Phonemes

Grapheme	a	e	i	o	u
Phoneme	/a/	/e/	/i/	/o/	/u/

Pronunciation of Simple Vowels

The simple vowels are pronounced as they are in many European Latin-based languages. The table below gives their phonetic values and some close examples in Spanish and French, and not-so-close examples in English.

Simple Vowels

VOWEL	IPA1	SPANISH	FRENCH	ENGLISH APPROXIMATION
a	[a]	mano	à	father
e	[e]	hecho	et	day 2
i	[i]	si	si	see2
o	[o]	no	de l'eau	so3
u	[u]	tu	ou	too3

Glided Vowels

Glided vowels are those preceded or followed by the semi-vowel glides y or w. This chart shows the possible glided vowels, their IPA equivalents, and their approximate pronunciations using English and other languages.

Glided Vowels

GLIDED VOWELS	IPA1	PRONUNCIATION
PRE-Y-GLIDED VOWELS
ya	[ja]	Eng. yacht, Fr. hiacinthe
ye	[je]	Eng. yet, Fr. grillé (grilled)
yi	[ji]	Eng. yeast*, Fr. bouilli
yo	[jo]	Eng. yoke*, Fr. maillot
yu	[ju]	Eng. you*, Fr. piou-piou
PRE-W-GLIDED VOWELS
wa	[wa]	Eng. water, Fr. gouache (poster paint)
we	[we]	Eng. wet, Fr. ouais (yes)
wi	[wi]	Eng. wee2, Fr. oui (yes)
wo	[wo]	Eng. woke2
wu	[wu]	Eng. woo2
POST-Y-GLIDED
ay	[aɪ]	Eng. sight, Sp. hay (there is)
ey	[eɪ]	Eng. day, Sp. rey (king)
iy	[iɪ]	Eng. see, Fr. bille (marble)
oy	[oɪ]	Eng. boy, Sp. hoy (today)
uy	[uɪ]	Eng. gooey, Sp. muy (very)
POST-W-GLIDED
aw	[ɔ]	Eng. awe
ew	[eʊ]	colloq. Eng. Tell me!
iw	[iʊ]	Eng. eew! (sound of disgust), Du. niew (new)
ow	[oʊ]	Eng. know, foe
uw	[uʊ]	Eng. goo
PRE-Y-POST-W-GLIDED
yaw	[jaʊ]	Eng. yaw
yew	[jeʊ]	Eng. yell (very rare)
yiw	[jiʊ]	Eng. yield (very rare)
yow	[joʊ]	Eng. yo bro!
yuw	[juʊ]	Eng. you
CIRCUM-Y-GLIDED
yay	[jaɪ]	Eng. yikes
yey	[jeɪ]	Eng. yea!
yiy	[jiɪ]	Eng. yeesh! (sound of disgust)
yoy	[joɪ]	Eng. yoink ( = New Jyoizy )
yuy	[juɪ]	Eng. Hughie
PRE-W-POST-Y-GLIDED
way	[waɪ]	Eng. wise, Fr. ouailles (flock)
wey	[weɪ]	Eng. way
wiy	[wiɪ]	Eng. wee! (sound of fun)
woy	[woɪ]	Eng. woy (rhymes with boy)
wuy	[wuɪ]	Eng. wooish (rhymes with gooey)

In Mirad, the above glided vowels are considered single vowels for the purposes of grammar, syllabification, and stress.

Note 1: International Phonetic Alphabet. See chart and click on sounds at [[1]].

Note 2: Without the typical y-glide at the end of the English vowel. The vowel should be pure, as in the Romance languages of Europe.

Note 3: Without the typical w-glide at the end of the English vowel. The vowel should be pure, as in the Romance languages of Europe.

Every syllable in Mirad contains one and only one vowel. A y when final or followed by a consonant is used to post-y-glide or diphthongize the previous vowel and is therefore considered part of the syllable in which that vowel is the nucleus (see case 2, below). Similarly, the liquids r and l, when final or followed by a consonant are considered to be a part of the syllable where the preceding vowel is the nucleus (see case 4, below). Two vowels in a row form two syllabic nuclei (see cases 3, 6, and 7, below). How syllables are divided is important for determining where the stress accent goes in a word (see Mirad_Grammar/Stress, below).

Syllabification

CASE	EXAMPLE	SYLLABIFIED
1	ama.....hot	a-ma
2	ayma.....warm	ay-ma
3	aymsea.....warming up	aym-se-a
4	pixwa....caught	pix-wa
5	upayo....will have come	u-pa-yo
6	vyaa....true	vya-a
7	vyaay....truly	vya-ay
8	vay....indeed	vay
9	tambwa....settled	tam-bwa
10	faof....plank	fa-of
11	twoyba....he-she	twoy-ba
12	yansauna....common	yan-sa-u-na

Although stress in Mirad is not marked and is not phonemic, i.e. not semantically distinctive, in all words of more than one syllable, the stress occurs on the last, non-final vowel, including glided vowels. The following chart gives some examples:

Stress

Mirad Word	With Stress and Syllabification Marked
tejna....vital	tej-na
igay....quickly	i-gay1
alayn....eleventh	a-layn
Mirad....Mirad	Mi-rad
booka....tired	bo-o-ka2
bookan....fatigue	bo-o-kan
akea....winning	a-ke-a
oyse....lacks	oy-se
byoskyin....pendulum	byos-kyin
pyaon....wave	pya-on
tooyba....female	to-oy-ba

¹ Here ay is a single post-y-glided vowel, and final, so it is not stressed.

² Two vowels in a row are pronounced in two syllables.

Here is a small passage where the stress of vowels in shown by boldfacing:

Hya tobi taje yiva ay gea be utfiz ay doyivi. Yit bulwe texyaf ay tyaf ay yeyfe hyuitaxler tidyenay.

All men are born equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another as brothers.

Phonotactics refers to the patterns in which the phonemes of a language may combine to form sequences. The possible syllabic patterns of Mirad are given below in a chart.

For the purposes of this chart:

• Y stands for the semi-vowel glides y or w.
• L stands for the liquids r and l.
• C stands for consonants other than glides or liquids.
• A stands for simple vowels.
• N stands for the nasal consonants m or n.
• + means 1 to 3 of the foregoing letter
• Parentheses indicate that a letter is optional.
• Bracketing indicates a choice of letters or patterns.

Syllables in native Mirad are shaped according to the following pattern constraints:

Phonotactics

ALLOWABLE SYLLABIC PATTERNS	EXAMPLES
(C)[LG]A+(Y)(L)(C)	o, ay, xwa, gyo, gra, toyb, glays, alp mayr, hyos, va, xwa, gyo, gla, gre, vya, lo, wa, yu, gaw
...A(Y)N(C)[sx]	mamp, yomx, yank, yons, eynx

• Two non-glide/liquid/non-nasal consonants cannot appear together in the same syllable, except in foreign-imported words.
• Two glides or liquids cannot come together in one syllable except in foreign-imported words.

Mirad words can be categorized as the following parts of speech, followed by their inflectional and derivational subcategories:

SUBSTANTIVES

• Nouns ( = sunduni)

• Common Nouns

• Countable Nouns    (tam....house, ewa tami....two houses)

• Animate Nouns    (tob....person)
• Inanimate Nouns    (pur....car)
• Gender-Neutral Nouns    (nyem....box)
• Male-Specific Nouns    ( twob....man)
• Female-Specific Nouns    ( toyb....cow)
• Singular Nouns    (sem....table)
• Plural Nouns    ( semi....tables)

• Uncountable Nouns

• Mass Nouns    (miek....sand, gla miek....a lot of sand)
• Deverbal Nouns ( ~ Gerunds/Infinitives/Abstractions)   (melyexen....farming, melyexer....to farm, ifon....love, xeyn....deed)
• Deadjectival ( ~ Abstract) Nouns   (vian....beauty)

• Proper Nouns

• Full names    (Usom....United States)
• Acronyms   (EA....EU)

• Pronouns ( = avduni)

• Personal Pronouns    (iyt....she)
• Reflexive Pronouns    (aut....myself)
• Possessive Pronouns    ( atas....mine)
• Deictic ( ~ Demonstrative) Pronouns    (hus....that)
• Quantitative Determiner Pronouns    (glati....many of them)
• Reciprocal Pronouns    (hyuit....one another)

VERBS ( = erduni)

• Tenses

• Present    (pe....goes)
• Past    (pa....went)
• Future    (po....will go)
• Atemporal    (pu!....Go!)

• Aspects

• Progressive    (peye....is going, peya....was going)
• Perfect    (paye....has gone, paya....had gone)
• Imminent    (poye....is about to go, poya....was to go)
• Potential    (puye....is apt to go, puya....was apt to go)

• Moods

• Hypothetical    (pu....would go, [van has] pu....[that it] go)
• Indicative    (po...will go, pe....goes)

• Voices

• Active    (It yijba ha mes.....He opened the door.)
• Passive    (Ha mes yijbwa.....The door was opened.)
• Medio-passive    (Ha mes yija.....The door opened.)

• Transitivity

• Transitive    (besa....stayed)
• Intransitive    ( bexa....held)

• Dynamicity

• Static    (tujeye....is sleeping)
• Dynamic    (tujpa....fell asleep)

• Focus

• Subject-oriented    (yafe....is able)
• Patient-oriented    (yafwe....is possible)

MODIFIERS

• Adjectives ( = aduni)

• Deictic Adjectives ( ~ Determiners)    (duhoa?....which?, hyea....any)
• Descriptive Adjectives    (via....beautiful)
• Denominal Adjectives    (vensona....conditional)
• Pronominal ( ~ Possessive) Adjectives)    (yata....our)
• Deverbal Adjectives ( ~ Participles)    (tejea....living, obwa....removed)
• Numeric Adjectives    (awa....one, ewa....two)

• Adverbs (ayduni)

• Inherent adverbs    (voy....not)
• Derived adverbs    (ikay....fully)

CONNECTORS

• Prepositions ( = ebduni)

• Simple Prepositions    (av....for)
• Complex Prepositions (be zam bi....in front of, yib bi....far from)

• Conjunctions ( = yanxduni)

• Coordinating    (ay....and, ey....or)
• Subordinating    (van....that, ven....if)
• Correlative    (hyaewa...ay....both...and)
• Adverbial    (johus....then, avhus....therefore)

PARTICLES ( = dunesi)

• Interjections    ( = tipduni) (hey!....Yoohoo!, hway!....bravo!)
• Cardinal Numbers    (a....one, e....two)
• Letter Names    (a, ba, ca)
• Onomatopeia    (pao!, xux!)
• Abbreviations    (a.g.....etc., a.k.....e.g.)

Noun Types

Nouns in Mirad can be distinguished in the following 7 ways:

1. common vs. proper
2. concrete vs. abstract
3. countable vs. mass
4. gender-neutral vs. masculine/feminine
5. singular vs. plural
6. animate vs. inanimate
7. full form vs. acronym

Common vs. Proper Nouns

COMMON	PROPER
tam....house	Emer....Venus
yagsim....bench	Ferom....France
dyes....book	Notre Dame...Notre Dame
tej....life	Tot....God

Concrete vs. Abstract Nouns

CONCRETE	ABSTRACT
tab....body	ifon....love
mil....water	oyman....coolness
deuz....song	deuzen....singing

Abstract nouns include gerunds, i.e. nouns which are nominalized derivations of verbs like deuzen....singing < deuzer....to sing or osexen....destruction < osexer....to destroy. Infinitives like deuzer....to sing are also considered abstract nouns.

Countable vs. Mass Nouns

COUNTABLE	MASS
pat....bird	pattel....bird food
patayebi....feathers	patayebyan....plumage
megi....rocks	mil....water

In native Mirad, all common nouns in their singular dictionary lookup form end in a consonant. Proper nouns sometimes end in a vowel, such as Roma....Rome. Plural common countable nouns end in the vowel i (pat....bird ⇒ pati....birds).

Gender-neutral vs. Gendered

GENDER-NEUTRAL	FEMININE	MASCULINE
tob....human being	toyb....woman	twob....man
edeb....monarch	edeyb....queen	edweb....king
ted....parent	teyd....mother	twed....father

Singular vs. Plural Nouns

SINGULAR	PLURAL
dom....city	domi....cities
gon....part	goni....parts
jub....day	jubi....days

Inanimate vs. Animate Nouns

INANIMATE	ANIMATE
mam....sky	pot....animal
tom....building	aot....person
job....time	tobet....child

Full form vs. Acronym

FULL FORM	ACRONYM
Anxwa Doobi....United Nations	AD....UN
Mir Nunuien Xob....World Trade Organization	MNX....WTO

The above noun type distinctions are relevant in various parts of Mirad's grammar.

Pluralization of Common Nouns

A singular countable common noun always ends in a consonant and is made plural by suffixing the pluralizing marker -i. So, the plural of pur....car is puri....cars. In noun phrases, for example, where a noun is modified by an article and adjective, only the noun is pluralized, that is, there is no agreement across word boundaries as in many European languages (la belle fleur →les belles fleurs). The plural suffix -i is the only way nouns in Mirad are inflected. All other changes to nouns are derivational in nature, eg. genderization, augmentation, diminution, capitalization, etc.

Pluralization of Nouns

SINGULAR	PLURAL
tam....house	tami....houses
toyb....woman	toybi....women
tej....life	teji....lives
ha via dom....the beautiful city	ha via domi....the beautiful cities

Modifying Nouns with the Definite Article

In Mirad, there is only a single noun-modifying article, the invariable definite article ha (the). There is no indefinite article like English a / an. A noun is considered indefinite or general unless modified by the definite article ha (which in reality is a definite deictic determiner, discussed with other deictic determiners in the later section on Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Deictic Determiners). The definite article ha is positioned, as in English, before the noun and before any other adjectives or modifiers of that noun. It is invariable, in that it does not vary for gender, number, or case as in German or Spanish. The definite article acts like its counterpart in English, as shown in the following chart:

Use of the Definite Article

MIRAD	ENGLISH	SPECIFICITY
tam	a house	indefinite, no article
ha tam	the house	definite
ha tami	the houses	definite, plural
tej	life	general, no article
fitejawa tej	a life well-lived	indefinite, no article
ha tej (...ho at bayse)	the life (... that I have)	specific
Ferad	French	language name, already specific, no article
Ivan	Ivan	person's name, no article
Ifliu yivan!	Cherish freedom	abstraction, no article
Ha yivani ho yat ifie.	The freedoms that we enjoy.	abstraction specified
Yata yivani...	Our freedoms...	abstraction specified with possessive pronoun, no article

Speakers of French and other European languages should take note that general concepts like love, life, freedom do not employ the definite article unless they refer to a specific instance, such as in the phrases the love that dare not speak its name or the life well-lived or the freedoms we possess. The names of languages and countries are also considered already specific, and so as in English, they do not take a definite article as they might in some European languages. Names of persons do not take the definite article as they do in modern Greek, unless in a phrase like "the Ivan I once knew."

Proper Nouns

Proper nouns, such as names of people, places, languages, etc., are capitalized as in English. The formation of country names and languages is discussed in Countries of the World and Languages of the World. It can be said here, though, that country names end in -m; the inhabitants of those places end in -t or pl. -ti; and the languages they speak end in -d. Language names are capitalized, eg. At tixe Ferad. (I study French.). In fact, this is the case for all parts of speech derived from a proper name, eg. Usoma tel Feramxweye. American food is being Frenchified.. French speakers beware; this is not like in French. And German speakers beware, too! Not all nouns are capitalized; only ones that are proper, such as names of people, companies, languages, countries, etc.

Names of people, cities, etc. are spelled in Mirad to best reflect the foreign pronunciation, but also to remain recognizable. For example:

• Xikago....Chicago
• Paris....Paris
• Munxen....Munich/München
• Beijing....Beijing
• Nu York....New York
• Nu Orlinz....New Orleans
• Xampanya....Champagne
• Méhiko Dom....Mexico City
• Waxington....Washington
• Seol....Seoul
• Xeykspir....Shakespeare

An inhabitant of a city is formed by adding -t or -at to the name, depending on whether it ends in a vowel or consonant, respectively, eg. Parisat....a Parisian or Waxingtonati....Washingtonians. Chicago's main newspaper is expressed in Mirad as ha aaga jubdindref bi Xikago. The English preposition in used before cities and states is translated by be in Mirad, eg. At tambese be Paris.....I live in Paris.

Noun Modifiers: Placement and Agreement

Nouns can be modified by various qualitative, quantitative, and deictic adjectives, which all precede the noun. These modifiers come in the same order as in English. There is no gender or number agreement between the modifiers and the noun, except that numeric adjectives, such as ewa....two naturally are followed by a noun in the plural number.

Noun Modifiers

Mirad	English
ha ewa aga tami	the two big houses
gla ifxea taxi	many pleasant memories
hya fia tob	every good man
ha yaga via mepi	the long, beautiful roads
gra vua sexen	too much ugly construction
ata aja teji	my past lives

Noun Linkage

Nouns can be

1. linked with a preposition or conjunction, where the prepositional/conjunctional phrase follows the head noun, or
2. juxtaposed, where the modifier noun is separated by a space and comes before the head noun, or
3. compounded, where the modifier noun is prefixed to a headword, or
4. hyphenated, where two equal elements are joined by a hyphen.

Examples:

Noun Linkage

LINKAGE EXAMPLE	CONSTRUCTION
Ivan ay Maria....Ivan and Maria	nouns linked associatively by the conjunction ay (and)
ha tam ey ha par....the house or the car	nouns linked associatively by the conjunction ey (or)
hyati oy ha toybi....all but the women	nouns linked associatively by the conjunction or (but)
nyandras boy eta dyun....a list without your name	nouns linked associatively by the preposition boy (without)
tej bi nasuk....a life of poverty	nouns linked associatively by the preposition bi (of)
ha tam bi Maria ....Mary's house (the house of Mary	nouns linked possessively by the preposition bi (of)
job bi aga ivan....a time of great joy	nouns linked associatively by the preposition bi (of)
dyes ayv ha Ea Mira Dropek....a book about the Second World War	nouns linked associatively by the preposition ayv (about)
dropek jwabeni....war preparations	modifier noun dropek (war) juxtaposed with the head noun jwabeni (preparations)
dom yuzpur....a city bus	modifier noun dom (city) juxtaposed with the head noun yuzpur (bus)
tojojfon....a death wish	modifier noun toj (death) compounded with the head noun ojfon (wish)
jogatanyaf....youth league	modifier noun jogat (youth) compounded with the head noun anyaf (league)
maj-moj....a day-and-night	two or more equal, opposed nouns hyphenated

The X bi Y prepositional construction must always be used for possession by a named person, eg. ha tam bi Sam (Sam's house = the house of Sam). The methods of noun linkage otherwise follow the English pattern in most all cases. Pronominal possession such as his car is discussed in the section on personal pronouns. The preposition bi....of is used in partitive expressions like tilzyeb bi vafil....a glass of wine (but: vafil tilzeb....wine glass, where wine modifies the glass associatively). More about this and other prepositions or conjunctions can be found in the section on Mirad Grammar/Prepositions or Mirad Grammar/Conjunctions.

Details on how noun vocabulary is derived appears in the section on Mirad Grammar/Vocabulary Formation.

Noun Derivational Affixes

Nouns can be divided into:

• simple nouns such as pur....vehicle
• compound nouns such as bixpur....train < bix....pull + pur....vehicle
• derived nouns such as fabyan....forest < fab....tree + -yan
  a suffix meaning collection

Derived nouns can be formed by attaching nominal suffixes or prefixes to words or roots. A list of nominal suffixes to form derived nouns is shown in the following table. More can be read about noun derivation in the section on vocabulary-building.

Noun Suffixes

Noun Derivational Suffixes

SUFFIX	MEANING	BASE ONTO WHICH SUFFIX IS ADDED	EXAMPLES
-ag	big	noun	tam....house → tamag....mansion tyal....meal → tyalag....banquet tilar....spoon → tilarag....ladle
-an	abstact quality -ness -hood, -ity	adjective stem	via....beautiful → vian....beauty yeva....fair → yevan....fairness, equity toba....human → toban....humanity, humanness, manhood
-ayg	big and cute	noun	tam....house → tamayg....cozy mansion kapet....dog → kapetayg....wolfie
-ambok	-itis, inflammation	noun	buixtaib....tendon → buixtaibambok....tendonitis
-d	language speech utterance	adjective and other stems	Enigem....English → Eniged....English (language) Mira....of the world → Mirad....Mirad (world speech) ekpet....horse →ekped....neigh, whinny
-drun	-gram	noun stems	tiib....heart → tiibdrun....cardiogram
-dra/i/ur	-graph	noun stems	am....heat → amdrar....thermograph
-dren	-graphy	mostly noun stems	yib....far → yibdren....telegraphy
-ef	need of	various stems	tel....food→telef....hunger iga....fast→igef....emergency til....drink→ tilef....thirst
-en	present gerund -ing -tion -ment	verb stem	ifi-....enjoy →ifien....enjoyment deuz-....sing→deuzen....singing ax-....act → axlen....acting
-eyn	present gerund -tion -ment	verb stem	x-....do →xeyn....deed s-....to be→seyn....essence jaup-....preceed → jaupeyn....precedent
-es	smaller counterpart thing	noun	tef....hat→ tefes cap saun....kind→ saunes....sample dreuz....poem → deuzes....stanza mek....dust, powder→mekes....speck, grain
-et	smaller counterpart person	noun	twob....man → twobet....boy toyb....woman→ toybet....girl
-if	love of -philia	noun	tel....food → telif....gourmandise doab....homeland → doabif....patriotism dyes....book → dyesif....bibliophilia, love of books
-ig	quick	noun and verb stem	man....light → manig....flash pyex....stroke→pyexig....swat yopap-....dive, fly down → yopapig....swoop
-im	room, chamber	various stems	fyadil-....to pray →faydilim....chapel magel-....to cook → magelim....kitchen tof-....to dress → tofim....dressing room
-in	doctrine, dogma, -ism	various stems	tot....god → totin....religion, theism otofa....nude→otofin....nudism yufr-....terror → yufrin....terrorism
-kyaoxar	-stat	noun stems	am....heat → amkyaoxar....thermostat
-n	abstract noun	various stems	ze....in the middle of → zen....center za....in front of →zan....face byi....since, starting with → byin....source go....less→ gon....part
-am	house building	various stems	nun-....merchandise → nunam....store til drink → tilam....bar, tavern fyadil-....to pray → fyadilam....church
-(e)m	place	various stems	duho-? what-?→ duhom?....where? yex....work → yexem....worksite ab....on, above → abem....top, surface kua....lateral→kum....side
-um	compartment booth	various stems	teuzibar....telephone → teuzibarum....telephone booth
-yem	enclosure, box	various stems	ekpet....horse →ekpetyem....corral b-....put → byem....position
-ud	offspring, baby of	noun	ekpet....horse→ekpetud....foal
-wud	son of	noun	ekpet....horse→ekpetwud....colt
-uyd	daughter of	noun	ekpet....horse→ekpetuyd....filly
-og	little	noun	tab body→ tabog....corpuscle ekpet....horse → ekpetog....pony tyal....meal → tyalog....snack golbun....cut → golbunog....cutlet
-oyg	little and cute	noun	tam....house → tamoyg....cottage gafapayt....chicken →gafapaytoyg....chickadee mimpar....boat → mirparoyg....dingy
-nagar	-ometer	noun	am....heat → amnagar....thermometer
-ar, -ir, -ur	tool, machine, engine	usu. verb stem	p-....to go→ pur....car dr-....to write → drar....pencil gobl-....to cut → goblar....knife yaobl-....to lift up and down → yaoblur....elevator, lift yaoblir....lift, crane dop....military → dopar....gun dopur....machine gun dopir....artillery, cannon
-s	thing, object, the X one	adjective	aa first → aas....first one, first thing otwa....unknown → otwas....mystery, an unknown tejea....living → tejeas....living thing
-(s)on	abstract thing issue	various stems	if-....to love→ifon....love ov against→ ovon....obstacle aza strong → azon....force yika....difficult → yikson....problem
-(s)un	object thing result of an action	various stems	vyua....dirty → vyun....spot tamb-....settle →tambiun....settlement gofr- shred → gofrun....scrap, shred hyo....not a single→ hyosun....not a single thing
-t	person	adjective	ea second → eat....second one, second person fya-....holy → fyat....holy one, saint ujna....last→ujat....last one, last person Usoma....American →Usomat....an American
-tajbus	-ogen, producer	noun	om....cold, cry- → omtajbus....cryogen
-tun	science of, -ology	noun	tot....god → tottun....theology tob....man → tobtun....anthropology vob....plant →vobtun....botany
-tuyn	pseudo-science	noun	mar....star → martuyn....astrology
-tuin	theory	noun	vyelan....relativity→ vyelantuin....theory of relativity
-tyen	skill, craft	noun	sur....engine → surtyen....engineering
-(t)in	doctrine, -ism	noun	zaypas-....progress → zaypasin....progressivism
-tut, tuyt (f.)	scientist -ologist -ist	noun	tot....god → tottut....theologist tob....man → tobtuyt....woman anthropologist vob....plant→ vobtut....botanist
-uf	hate of, -phobia	noun	mil....water → miluf....hydrophobia totin....religion → totinuf....hatred of religion toyb....woman → toybuf....misogyny
-ut, uyt (f.)	agent, one who Xes, -er, -ant, -ist	verb stem	bek-....treat → bekuyt....female nurse pop-....travel→poput....traveler ak-....win → akut....winner
--yaf	ability to, power -ability	verb stem	teat-....to see → teatyaf....ability to see tex-....to think → texyaf....cognition test-....to understand → testyaf....comprehension nos-....to spend → nosyaf....spending power t-....to know → tyaf....cognizance
-yafwan	possibility, -ability	verb stem	teat-....to see → teatyafwan....visibility
-yof	inability to, disability	verb stem	teat-....to see → teatyof....blindness teet-....to hear → teetyof....deafness pas-....to move→pasyof....paralysis tuj-....to sleep → tujyof....insomnia
-yofwan	impossibility	verb stem	teat-....to see → teatyofwan....invisibility
-yag	big and ugly, long	noun	tetwid....uncle→ tetwidyag....dirty old uncle toyb....woman → toybyag....hag
-yan	collection, grouping -ary	noun	tob....man → tobyan....mankind mar....star → maryan....constellation fab....tree → fabyan....forest dyes....book→ dyesyan....library
-yen	manner, kind	noun	dal....talk →dalyen....parlance sex-....build →sexyen....structure
-yef	duty, obligation	verb stem	dud-....to answer → dudyef....responsibility byok-....to ache → byokyef....punishment
-yik	difficulty to	verb stem	teeter....to hear → teetyik....difficulty hearing tiex-....to breathe → tiexyik....difficulty breathing, asthma
-yog	little and ugly	noun	tam....house →tamyog....shack anpiat....duck → anpiatyog....ugly duckling kod....secret → kodyog....little dirty secret
-yuf	fear of, -phobia	noun	serpyet....snake→ serpyetyuf....fear of snakes mil....water → milyuf....hyrophobia
-yuk	ease of	verb stem	pes- to wait → pesyuk....patience kovyox- to fool → kovyoxyuk....gullibility, foolhardiness

Differences between -en, -eyn, and -un

The noun suffixes -en, -eyn, and -un create nominalized forms from verb stem, but are a bit confusing. The suffix -en is equivalent to the English -ing and forms a gerundive. The suffix -eyn is a slight variation and refers to a single action or state. The ending -un forms a word meaning the result of an action and is often a thing. Sometimes -eyn is used instead of -un where the latter has a special meaning. Here are some examples:

• xer....to do

• xen....doing
• xeyn....deed
• xun....fact

• yugxer....to slow up

• yugxen....deceleration
• yugxun....bottleneck

• der....to say

• den....saying
• deyn....utterance, a saying
• dun....word

• ujer....to end

• ujen....ending eg. I like ending on a happy note.
• ujeyn....an ending, finale eg. This play's finale was emotional.
• ujun....end, tail end eg. The road came to a sudden end.

Examples of the Suffix -yen

Wording Ending in -yen

Base Word	Derivation
ajtyod....past people	ajtyodyen....tradition
d-....to say	dyen....expression
akpas....winning move	akpasyen....tactic
dre(r)....to write	dreyen....writing system
amal....atmosphere	amalyen....weather
an-....single	anyen....quirk, idio-
axl-....to act	axlyen....behavior
aot....person	aotyen....character, personality
ty-....to know how	tyen....skill, craft
x-....to do	xyen....profession
ze-....middle	zeyen....means
bas-....gesture	basyen....body language
tex....thought	texyen....opinion
es-....to exist	esyen....state
kya-....change	kyayen....version
p-....to go	pyen....pace, gait
yex-....to work	yexyen....line of work
tayot-....to feel	tayotyen....texture

Noun Prefixes

Prefixes can also be attached to nouns to create derivatives. Here are some common productive ones:

Noun Prefixes

Prefix	Meaning	Base Noun	Derivations
aa-	first, arch-	deb....leader dezun....performance tat....angel	aadeb....premier azdezun....premiere aatat....archangel
ab-	superior, sur-, on	donab....rank dout....gentleman dyun....name	abdonab....superior rank abdout....aristocrat abdyun....title, surname
an-	one, uni-, mono-	zyukpar....wheeled vehicle dungon....syllable	anzyukpar....unicycle andungon....monosyllable
ao-	vertical	nab....rank	aonab....column
aoyeb-	in-and-out	belen....carrying	aoyebelen....import-exports
aov-	for-and-against	dalson....subject	aovdalson...controversy
ayb-	over-, super-	dras....script ilp....flow mas....name	aybdrun....superscript aybilp....overflow aybmas....ceiling
ayn-	holo-	dras....script meg....stone sag....number	ayndras....hologram aynmeg....hololith aynsag....integer
aj-	past, pre-, fore-	din....story gex....equity	ajdin....history ajgex....revenge
az-	strong	hihid....laugh ojvad....promise tos....feeling	azhihid....guffaw azojvad....covenant aztos....passion
do-	public	del....statement did....question vyab....rule	dodel....announcement dodid....inquiry dovyab....law
eb-	inter-, dia-	dal....statement ifek....gram kyax....change	ebdal....dialog ebifek....interlude ebkyax....interchange
eyn-	semi-, hemi-, half-	il....liquid	eynil....semi-liquid
en-	bi-, di-, two-	zyukpar....wheeled vehicle	enzyukpar....bicycle
eg-	normal	byen....manner	egbyen....norm
ej-	step-, current	twid....brother din....story	ejtwid....step-brother ejdin....current news item
ev-	a-, neutral	totin....deism	evtotin....atheism
fi-	eu-, bene-	dyen....expression tos....feeling fon....will	fidyen....euphemism fitos....euphoria fifon....benevolence
fyi-	helpful	dal....talk	fyidal....advice
fu-	caco-, mal-, ill-, dys-	seux....sound fon....will tos....feeling	fuseux....cacophony fufon....ill-will, malevolence futos....dysphoria
fyu-	waste	mil....water pelt...insect mul....stuff	fyumil....waste water fyupelt....pest fyumul....garbage
fya-	holy	din....story buun....gift byekut....healer	fyadin....gospel fyabuun....oblation, offering fyabyekut....shaman, witchdoctor
fye-	fantasy, mytho-	din....story diyn....tale mir....world	fyedin....myth, fantasy fyediyn....fairy-tale, fable fyemir....fantasia, fantasy-world
fyo-	evil	tat....angel	fyotat....demon
gab-	plus	nix....earning	gabnix....interest
gaw-	re-	aklen....conquest	gawaklen....reconquest
ge-	equi-, iso-, even-	eksag....score kyin....weight	geeksag....tie gekyin....equilibrium
gel-	homo-, like-, simul-	dredun....speling san....form	geldredun....homograph gelsan....isomorph, clone
gla-	multi-, plur-, poly-	gon....part	glagon....plurality
gra-	too, hyper-	bik....caution	grabik....hypercaution
gwa-	macro-, super-	mor....universe	gwamor....macrocosm
gwo-	micro-, mini-	drenod....dot nog....degree	gwodrenod....microdot gwonog....minimum
hyi-	homo-, same	toobif....gender preference	hyitoobif....homosexualtiy
hyu-	hetero-, different, other-, allo-, xeno-	toobif....gender preference mer....planet san....shape	hyutoobif....heterosexuality hyumer....alien planet hyusan....allomorph
hya-	omni-, pan-, all-	doobin....nationalism	hyadoobin....pan-nationalism
hye-	any, whatever	saun....kind	hyesaun....any kind
hyo(s)-	nothing	ten....knowledge	hyosten....ignorance
hyuit-	mutual	fizuen....respect	hyuitfizuen....mutual respect
ig-	fast	didyan....questionnaire	igdidyan....pop quiz
ij-	initial, head	dun....word miap....stream	ijdun....prologue ijmiap....headstream
ik-	full	nuxen....payment	iknuxen....liquidation
il-	liquid	ok....loss	ilok....leak
im	wet	mel....soil	immel....loam, wetland
in-	tri-, three	goblun....cut	ingoblun....trisection
iv-	happy	din....story	ivdin....comedy
iz-	straight, orth-, rect-, direct	fin....quality mep....path	izfin....rectitude izmep....beeline, vector
ja-	before, pre-	bik....caution	jabik....precaution
je-	continuous	dodal....speech	jedodal....harangue
jo-	after, post-	dren....writing	jodren....postscript
jwa-	proto-, eo-, early	ajdin....history ejob....modern era	jwaajdin....protohistory jwaejob....eocene
jwe-	prompt	puen....arrival	jwepuen....on-time arrival
jwo-	latter, late	moj....night	jwomoj....late night
ku-	side, aside, lateral	bux....push deyn....saying	kubux....rebuff kudeyn....remark
ki-	diagonal, slant	nad....line texyen....opinion	kinad....diagonal, slant kitexyen....bias
ko-	hide, covert	d....utterance exut....operative flen....desire jadrun....plan	kod....secret koexut....spy koflen....envy kojadrun....plot
kya-	change, para-, re-	'bax....movement dyan....phrase din....story naz....value napxen....ordering	kyabax....shift kyadyan....paraphrase kyadin....version kyanaz....variable kyanapxen....reordering, shuffling
kye-	haphazard	den....saying fyun....harm kaxun....find	kyeden....guesswork kyefyun....danger kyekaxun....discovery
kyo-	fixed	byen....manner deyn....saying doneg....social class	kyobyen....habit kyodeyn....cliché kyodoneg....caste
kyi-	heavy	azon....force tes....meaning bal....pressure	kyiazon....gravity kyites....importance kyibal....strain
kyu-	light	azon....force mamil	kyuazon....ballast kyumamil....drizzle
lo-	dis-, de-, un-	bexun....possession bokulxen....toxification box...quiet	lobexun....dispossession, divestment lobokulxen....detoxification lobox....disquiet
mak-	electro-, e-	ebdras....letter nagar....meter	makebdras....email maknagar....electrometer
o-	not, un-	bik....care	obik....neglect
ob-	off-	goflun....rip fub....branch	obgoflun....stub obfub....offshoot
oge-	unequal, aniso-	izonan...orientation	ogeizonan....anisotropy
ogel-	hetero-, different	toobifan....sexual preference	ogeltoobifan....heterosexuality
oyb-	under-, sub-, infra-	mos....floor neg....level	oybmos....basement oybneg....sublevel
of-	unauthorized	birun....grab dresini....drawings gelxun....copy	ofbirun....loot ofdresini....grafitti ofgelxun....plagiarism
og-	small	soni....matters	ogsoni....trivia
oj-	future, fore-	buen....giving deyn....utterance	ojbuen....lending ojdeyn....forecast
ok-	loss	buun....gift tos....feeling	okbuun....sacrifice oktos....heartache
ov-	against, counter-, contra-	adabinut....imperialist apyex....attack	'ovadabinut....anti-imperialist ovapyex....counterattack
oz-	weak	duun....suggestion	ozduun....hint
ug-	slow	dal....speech ilok....leak teax....look	ugdal....drawl ugilok....seepage ugteax....gaze
ui-	'horizontal	nab....rank	uinab....row
un-	quadri-, tetra-, four-	drezun....poem yan....collection	undrezun....quatrain unyan....tetrad
uj-	end	ak....win dun....word jud....date	ujak....success ujdun....epilogue ujjud....deadline
uk	empty	dal....talk mel....soil nod....point	ukdal....blather ukmel....desert uknod....puncture
ut-	self-, sui-, aut(o)-	tojben....killing dab....government	uttojben....suicide utdab....autarchy
uv-	sad	deuzun'....song dolen....silence kyeuj....fate	uvdeuzun....dirge uvdolen....sulking uvkyeuj....tragedy
uf-	hate	dal....speech tos....feeling	ufdal....rant uftos....anger
uz-	crooked, curved, arc	aybmas....roof dopar....weapon kunad....edge	uzaybmas....vault, arch uzdopar....bow, arch uzkunad....rim
va-	yes	bien....taking diun....request dud....answer	vabien....acceptance vadiun....claim vadud....assent
ve-	maybe	texen....thinking yovdeyn....inculpation	vetexen....supposition veyovdeyn....indictment
vo-	no	texen'....thinking fon....will	votexen....doubting vofon....disinclination
vya-	true	deyn....utterance dud....answer nad....line	vyadeyn....avowal vyadud....solution vyanad....guideline
vye-	relative	dren....writing	vyedren....correspondence
vyo-	wrong, mis-	bek....treatment dat....friend	vyobek....mistreatment vyodat....false friend
yan-	together, con-	dal....talk	yandal....conversation
yon-	apart	byex....strike	yonbyex....breach
yov-	shame	bixen....pulling byok....pain if....pleasure	yovbixen....seduction yovbyok....punishment yovif....schadenfreude
yab-	up, super-, high-, hyper-	dom'....city dot....society	yabdom....uptown yabdot....high society
yabnan-	hypso-, acro-, height	dren....recording	yabnandren....hypsography
yaob-	up-and-down	yuijar....valve pusen....jumping	yaobyuijar....piston yaopusen....bouncing
yaz-	swollen, protruding, convex	dal....talk buk....wound tiub....belly	yazdal....bombast yazbuk....boil, blister yaztiub....potbelly
yez-	flush, along, para-	baktut....medic mel....terrain	yezbaktut....paramedic yezmel....meadow
yiz-	beyond, meta-, ultra-, hyper-	doobin....nationalism dreniv....text	yizdoobin....ultra-nationalism yizdreniv....hypertext
yoz-	sunken, concave	nad....line	yoznad....groove, gutter
yaoz-	saw-toothed, convex-concave	nad....line goblar....knife	yaoznad....tilde yaozgoblar....saw
yuz-	around, circ-, circum-, peri-	pipen....navigation teaxar....scope tyop....walk	yuzpipen....circumnavigation yuzteaxar....periscope yuztyop....stroll
yeb-	in-, intro-, inner-	dungab....affix dem....yard	yebdungab....infix yebdem...courtyard
oyeb-	out-, extro-, outer-	dom....city dovyaban....legality	oyebdom....outskirts oyebdovyaban....extralegality
yib-	tele-, far	drir....typewriter teaxar....viewer, scope	yibdrir....teletype yibteaxar....telescope
yibaj	ancient, archaeo-, paleo-	deyn....utterance tun....science	yibajdeyn....archaism yibajtun....archaeology
yub-	near, para-	gexen....equaling kex....search	yubgexen....approximation yubkex....examination
yubaj-	recent, ceno-
yob-	down, sub-, supra-	doneg....class gol....division	yobdoneg....low class yobgol....subdivision
za-	front, fore-, pre-, north	dungab....affix dyun....name mer....planet	zadungab....prefix zadyun....forename zamer....north
ze-	middle, mid-	dom....city jub....day	zedom....downtown zejub....midday
zo-	behind, back	bex....hold bix....pull	zobex....delay zobix....drag
zay-	forward, pro-	bix....pull bux....push	zaybix....protraction zaybux....propulsion
zey-	across, trans-, meta-	dras....script ilp....flow	zeydras....transcript zeyilp....crosscurrent
zoy-	re-, retro-, back	axlen....action kix....bend mag....fire mav....flash	zoyaxlen....reaction zoykix....reflection zoymag....retrofire zoymav....flashback
zya-	wide	dodal....speech drurun....printout	zyadodal....propaganda zyadrurun....poster
zye-	through, per-, trans-, dia-	belun....cargo muf....rod bwas....something put	zyebelun....shipment zyebuxmuf....ramrod (through-push-rod) zyebwas....metaphor
zyi-	flat, plat-	dyen....expression melyaz....mountain mos....floor	zyidyen....platitude zyimelyaz....plateau zyimos....platform
zyo-	narrow	bex....hold bix....pull gun....angle	zyobex....clasp, grip zyobix....tension zyogun....acute angle
zyu-	round, roto-, cyclo-	abaun....cover drurun....printout tom....building	zyuabaun....dome zyudrurun....rotograph zyutom....tower

Gender

Nouns in Mirad are gender-neutral, unless those relating to people, animals, and sometimes clothing are altered to be specifically male/male-oriented or female/female-oriented. To create the male or male-oriented form of an otherwise gender-neutral noun, prefix the vowel of the semantically-significant syllable with the letter w. To create the female or female-oriented form, suffix the vowel of the semantically-significant syllable with y. If the noun is an agent noun with the suffix -ut, that is, a noun that means "one who does something as an occupation or behavior", the ending -ut is changed to -uyt for the female form, but the male form stays the same. The reason for this is that the addition of a w to the agentive ending could be confused with the verbal passive marker w (see the chapter on Mirad Grammar/Verbs. The chart below shows how this works:

Making Nouns Gender-specific

NEUTRAL	MALE/MALE-ORIENTED	FEMALE/FEMALE-ORIENTED
tob....human being, person	twob....man	toyb....woman
tobet....child	twobet....boy	toybet....girl
tad....spouse	twad....husband	tayd....wife
ejtad....step spouse	ejtwad....step-husband	ejtayd....step-wife
ajtad....ex-spouse	ajtwad....ex-husband	ajtayd....ex-wife
ted....parent	twed....father	teyd....mother
datif....sweetheart	dwatif....boyfriend	daytif....girlfriend
yapet....pig	yapwet....boar	yapeyt....sow
edeb....monarch	edweb....king	edeyb....queen
apat....fowl	apwat....rooster	apayt....hen
tiuv....underwear	tiwuv....briefs	tiuyv....panties
vapet....antelope	vapwet....deer	vapeyt....doe
deuzut....singer	deuzut....singer	deuzuyt....songstress
tud....child	twud....son	tuyd....daughter

For gender specification in pronouns, see Mirad Grammar/Pronouns, below).

Adjective Types

Adjectives, which are words that modify nouns, can be of the following types and subcategories:

• descriptive

1. qualitative, like iva (happy), fia (good), oga (small)
2. denominal ( ~ noun-derived), like doma (urban) < dom (city) or teaba (ocular) < teab (eye)
3. deverbal ( ~ verb-derived), (participles) like tejea (living) < tejer (to live) or twa (known) < ter (to know)
4. preposition-derived, like aba (upper) < ab....on top of or zoa (posterior) < zo (behind)

• determinative

1. deictic ( ~ demonstrative, indefinite), like hia (this), huyena (such), haewa (both)
2. numeric, like awa (one), ea (second), iona (triple)
3. quantitative, like ga (more), glo (few), gra (too much)
4. pronominal ( ~ possessive), like ata (my), duhota? (whose), hyeta (anyone's)

Descriptive adjectives are the main focus of this section. Determinative adjectives (determiners) behave differently and are discussed under Determiners. Deverbal adjectives, usually referred to as participles, are treated in the section on Verbs, since they are formed from verbs. Pronominal determiners (i.e. possessive adjectives) are treated under both the section on Determiners and the section on Pronouns.

Descriptive Adjectives

All descriptive adjectives end in the adjectival marker vowel a.

Adjective-marking suffix

STEM	MEANING	ADJECTIVE
fi-	qualitative root base word	fia....good
pur	noun meaning vehicle	pura....vehicular
dalw-	passive stem of the verb speak	dalwa....spoken
ab	preposition meaning on	aba....superior

Such adjectives precede the noun or noun phrase they modify:

• aga tam....a big house
• ha fia toyb....the good woman
• ata boka twed....my sick father
• fia ilzyebi bi vafil.....good bottles of wine
• yata dooba doof....our national flag

Adjectives do not agree in number or gender with the noun they modify.

doba xeut....state agent can also be expressed as the noun compound dobxeut. Dob means a state.

pata bok....avian illness can be compounded as patbok, literally bird illness.

Note: Compounded nouns often have an idiomatic meaning not exactly equal to their separate parts. More about this in the later section on vocabulary-building.

Comparing Adjectives by Degree

As in English, descriptive adjectives can be compared by degree. To do this, a quantitative determiner of degree (ga, ge, etc.) is placed before the adjective, producing positive / negative comparative, equalitative, superlative, and other degree expressions as in the following table. The quantitative determiners themselves that are used in these comparative expressions are discussed in detail in a later section on Quantitative Determiners.

Modification of Adjectives by Degree

QUANTITATIVE DETERMINER	MODIFICATION BY DEGREE
ga....more	ga fia (vyel)....better (than)
ge....as, equally	ge fia (vyel)....as good (as)
go....less	go fia (vyel)....less good (than)
gao....more or less	gao fia....good more or less
gla....very	gla fia....very good
glay....so	glay fia....so good
gle....rather/quite	gle fia....rather/quite good
glo....not very	glo fia....not very/slightly/barely good
gra....too	gra fia....too good
gre....enough	gre fia....good enough
gro....not enough	gro fia....not good enough
gwa....most	gwa fia (bi, be)....best (of, in)
gwe....just, merely	gwe fia....merely good
gwo....least	gwo fia (bi, be)....least good (of, in)

The relative conjunction vyel is used to translate English as in an equalitative comparison or than in a non-equalitative comparison. Examples:

• Ata tam se ga aga vyel etas.....My house is bigger than yours.
• Hia tam voy se ge aga vyel atas.....This house is not as big as mine.
• His se ha gwa aga tam bi yata yubem.....This is the biggest house in our neighborhood.

Unlike in English, where comparative forms can be irregular (smaller, more intense, better), there are no exceptions in the comparison of Mirad adjectives and adverbs.

Deriving Substantives from Adjectives

Adjectives can be suffixed to derive various noun substantives:

• Abstract quality noun: -n
• Thing having a quality: -s
• Person having a quality: -t

Deriving Substantives from Adjectives

ADJECTIVE	QUALITY	PERSON	THING
fia....good	fian....goodness	fiat....a good person	fias....a good thing
yeva....just	yevan....justice	yevat....a fair person	yevas....a fair thing
joga....young	jogan....youth	jogat....a youth	jogas....something new

The substantives ending in -s and -t can be referred to as deadjectival pronouns, because they act like pronouns but are derived from adjectives.

Reversing the Semantics of Adjectives

Descriptive adjectives can be negated by prefixing o. If the adjective being semantically reversed already begins with the prefix o, then the first semantic reversing prefix becomes ol. This has the effect of English un- or non- in words like unlike, unhappy, and nonessential or the Greek privative prefix a(n)- in words like asymmetric or anomalous.

Prefixing the syllable lyo or ov has an even stronger semantic effect. It denotes the polar opposite of the adjective and can mean "anti-".

In cases where the o- creates an ambiguous word, lo- or -ol is substituted, depending on whether the base adjective begins with a consonant or a vowel, respectively. Note this in the last two words of the following chart:

Reversing the Semantics of Adjectives

NORMAL	NEGATED
twa....known	otwa....unknown
ega....normal	oega....abnormal
eflawa....essential	oeflawa....nonessential
geyla....similar	ogeyla....dissimilar
iva....happy	oiva....unhappy
data....friendly	odata....unfriendly lyodata....inimical ovdata....hostile
dota....social	odota....unsocial lyodota....barbarian ovdota....antisocial
ifwa....loved	oifwa....unloved
fwa....wanted	lofwa....unwanted
ofwa....prohibited	olofwa....unprohibited

Polarization of Base Word Adjectives

Base word adjectives are polarized adjectives that fall into the following pattern categories:

• [iu]Ca (such as ifa, uja, ika, uka, etc.)
• C[iu]a (such as fia, fua, via, vua, etc.)
• [aeu]Ca (such as aja, eja, uja, yava, yeva, yova, etc.)
• C[aeu]a (such as vaa, vea, vua, etc.)

In the case of the i/u vowel adjectives, those adjectives with i are positive and are contrasted with those with u, which are negative, eg.:

I/U Polarized Adjectives

Positive	Negative
fia....good	fua....bad
iva....happy	uva....sad
via....beautiful	vua....ugly

In the case of the a/e/u vowel adjectives, those adjectives with a are positive; those with e are intermediate, and those with o are negative, eg.:

A/E/U-Polarized Adjectives

Positive	Intermediate	Negative
yava....innocent	yeva....fair	yova....guilty
aja....past	eja....present	oja....future
aga....big	ega....normal	oga....small

Deintensifying the Sense of Adjectives

The semantic strength of qualitative adjectives can often be deintensified by following the ordinal vowel or stem vowel with the glide y. Examples follow:

Mitigated Adjectives

NORMAL	DEINTENSIFIED
oma....cold	oyma....cool
ama....hot	ayma....warm
yufa....afraid	yuyfa....shy
yiva....free	yiyva....loose
via....beautiful	viya....pretty
ifwa....loved	iyfwa....liked
yefwa....obligatory	yeyfwa....due
ufwa....hated	uyfwa....disliked

Adjectival Derivational Endings

All descriptive adjectives end in at least the suffix a. Many adjectives are derived from other parts of speech, using one of more of the following derivational endings.

Adjectival Derivative Endings

ENDING	TRANSITION TYPE	MEANING	BASE WORD	DERIVED ADJECTIVE
-a	N->ADJ	relating to, of	tot....god tob....man dom....city	tota....divine toba....human doma....urban
-aya	N->ADJ	full of, -ful, -ous	mil....water yazmel....mountain tes....meaning	milaya....watery, aquaous yazmelaya....mountainous tesaya....meaningful
--ika	N->ADJ	full of, -ful, -ous	mil....water yazmel....mountain tes....meaning	milika....watery, aquaous yazmelika....mountainous tesika....meaningful
-oya	N->ADJ	empty of, -less, -free	teb....head level....sugar tes....meaning	teboya....headless leveloya....sugar-free tesoya....meaningless
-uka	N->ADJ	empty of, -less, -free	teb....head level....sugar tes....meaning	tebuka....headless leveluka....sugar-free tesuka....meaningless
-yena	N->ADJ	like, -ish, -y	tot....god tob....man dom....city	totyena....godly, godlike tobyena....manly, virile domyena....urbane
-ea	V->ADJ	-ing, -ent, -ant	ags-....grow tej-....live kyas-....change	agsea....growing, crescent tejea....living, alive kyasea....changing, variant
-yea	V->ADJ	-ive, tending to	dal-....talk tox-....forget vad-....affirm	dalyea....talkative toxyea....forgetful vadyea....affirmative
-wa	V->ADJ	-ed	dal-....talk tox-....forget vad-....affirm	dalwa....spoken toxwa....forgotten vadwa....affirmed
-oa	V->ADJ	-about to, apt to	toj-....die kyes-....happen tajb-....give birth	tojoa....moribund kyesoa....imminent tajboa....about to deliver
-ua	V->ADJ	-able, potentially V	tojb-....kill bukx-....harm akuj-....succeed	tojbua....lethal bukxua....dangerous akujua....potentially successful
-yafa	V->ADJ	-able	test-....understand	testyafa....able to understand
-yafwa	V-ADJ	-able, possible to X	test-....understand	testyafwa....understandable
-yofa	V->ADJ	unable to	teat-....see	teatyofa....blind
-yofwa	V->ADJ	impossible to, un-X-able	teat-....see	teatyofwa....invisible
-yuka	V->ADJ	comfortable Xing	pes-....wait	pesyuka....patient
-yukwa	V->ADJ	easy to X	test-....understand	testyukwa....clear
-yika	V->ADJ	hard of Xing	teet-....hear	teetyika....hard of hearing
-yikwa	V->ADJ	hard to X	teet-....hear	teetyikwa....hard to hear
-ifa	V->ADJ	fond of Xing, -phile/-ic	t-....know dyes....book	tifa....curious dyesifa....bibliophilic
-ifwa	V->ADJ	loved by	tyod-....people	tyodifwa....popular
-ufa	V->ADJ	X-hating, -phobic, averse	tob-....man yex....work	toybufa....anthrophobic yexufa....lazy, work-averse
-ufwa	V->ADJ	hated by	hyat....everyone	hyatufwa....universally hated
-yifa	V->ADJ	brave	toj....death	tojyifa....brave in the face of death
-yufa	V-ADJ	afraid of X	tot....god	totyufa....god-fearing
-yufwa	V->ADJ	feared by X	gla....much	glayufwa....much-feared
-yefa	V->ADJ	due to X	dud-....answer	dudyefa....answerable, responsible
-yeyfa	V->ADJ	liable to X	fyuzi-....get punished	fyuziyeyfa....liable to be punished
-yefwa	V->ADJ	X-worthy	fid-....praise	fidyefa....praiseworthy
-yakwa	V->ADJ	expected to X	mamil-....rain	mamilyakwa....likely to rain
-valka	N->ADJ	-safe, -proof	mil....water	milvalka....waterproof
-ava	N->ADJ	pro-X	tej....life	tejava....pro-life
-eva	N->ADJ	-neutral	toob....gender	toobeva....gender-neutral
-ova	N->ADJ	anti-X	dropek....war	dropekova....anti-war
-yiva	N->ADJ	-free	yef....debt	yefyiva....debt-free
-yuva	N->ADJ	-bound	yef....duty vya-....truth dofin....moral	yefyuva....duty-bound vyayuva....loyal dofinyuva....scrupulous
-aza	N->ADJ	strong-Xed	fon....will tip....temperament	fonaza....strong-willed tipaza....stern
-oza	N->ADJ	weak-Xed	tip....temperament	tipoza....weak-hearted
-iza	N->ADJ	straight-Xed	tep....mind dal....speech	tepiza....logical daliza....frank
-uza	N->ADJ	crooked-Xed	tep....mind dal....speech	tepuza....illogical daluza....devious
-okya	N->ADJ	absent-Xed	tad....spouse ted....parent	tadokya....widowed tedokya....orphaned
-iga	N->ADJ	fast-Xed	tuyub....finger	tuyubiga....nimble
-uga	N->ADJ	slow-Xed	tep....mind	tepuga....slow-witted, dull
-aga	N->ADJ	big-Xed	tiib....heart	tiibaga....big-hearted, generous
-oga	N->ADJ	small-Xed	tep....mind	tepoga....small-minded
-yiga	N->ADJ	hard-Xed	tip....temperament	tipyiga....stern, strict
-yuga	N->ADJ	soft-Xed	tip....temperament	tipyuga....lax, lenient

Adverb Types

Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. There are two types of adverbs in Mirad, namely:

• derived adverbs
• inherent adverbs.

Derived Adverbs

Adverbs can be derived from descriptive adjectives by suffixing the adverbial marker y, eg.:

Derived Adverbs

ADJECTIVE	ADVERB
fia....good	fiay....well
yeva....fair	yevay....fairly
uja....final	ujay....finally
ejna....new	ejnay....newly
teyda....maternal	teyday....maternally

At the end of sentences or clauses, common one-syllable-stem adverbs can be shortened by removing the ay ending:

• Iyt deuze fi.....She sings well.
• At upo ig.....I'll come quickly.

Otherwise, the full adverb form is used, eg.:

• Yet yefe ugay fiaser.....You people must slowly improve.
• At tojo ivay, tea van at beaye fia tej.....I will die happily knowing that I've had a good life.

Inherent Adverbs

There are some words in the language that are inherently invariable adverbs and do not take the ay ending, because they are not formed from adjectives, or because they already end in ay. Here are the most common examples:

Inherent Adverbs

yab....up yaob....up and down	(a)yeb1....in oyeb....out aoyeb....in and out	yob....down	yub....near yuib....near and far	yib....far oyib....not far
ab....on ayb....above aob....of and on	eb....between eyb....among	ob....off oyb....under	ub....toward	ib....away
bay....with/along	bey....by/via	boy....without	byu....as far (as)	byi....since
vay....indeed	vey....perhaps	voy....not
za....in front (of) zay....ahead zya....throughout zao....back and forth	ze....to/at the middle (of) zey....across zye....through	zo....in back (of) zoy....back	zu....on the left (of) zui....right and left	zi....on the right (of)
			uz....on a curve uiz....zigzig	iz....straight, directly
	yez....along		yuz....around	yiz....beyond oyiz....not beyond
ga....more gao....more or less	ge...equally	go....less
gay....also	gey....even	goy....no more/except
gaj....still		goj....no longer
yan....together		yon....apart
ja....before jao....before and after jay....already	je....meanwhile jey....meanwhile	jo....after joy...next	ju....until	ji....since

Note 1: Ayeb is almost always shortened to yeb.

The words in the above chart that are underlined can also serve as prepositions (See Prepositions).

The words underlined below are considered adverbial because they can modify verbs. For example:

• At teaxa yab.....I looked up.   (= At yabteaxa.)
• Duven et hyej upo zoy?.....Will you ever come back.   (= ...zoyupo?)
• Et po yib be tej......You will go far in life.   (= Et yipo...)
• At voy se eta ted.....I am not your father.
• Pu zu, jogat!....Go left, young man!   (= Zupu...)
• Yat vay sa hum.....We were indeed there.
• It pa oyeb.....He went outside.   (= It oyepa.)
• Iyt gay deuze.....She also sings.
• Yit yexe gey be moji.....They work even nights.
• Ha tobud gaj tujeye.....The baby is still sleeping.
• Yat yefe yexer yan.....We must work together.   (= ...yanyexer.)
• His vey upo yon.....This may come apart.   (= ...yonupo.)
• Hit se jay toja.....This one is already dead.
• Hut se voy toja.....That one is not dead.
• At popeyo zya.....I will be traveling all around.   (= zyapopeyo.)
• Et byase yon.....You stand apart.
• Van yet besu yan.....Stay together, guys.

Many of the above adverbs can be prefixed to verbs, nouns, and even adjectives to indicate motion in various directions. (Keep in mind that the b or p can be assimilated to the first letter of per (go) or ber (put). For example:

• yeb (in) + per (go) = yeper (to enter)  [NOT: yebper]
• oyeb (out) + bier (take) = oyebier (to take out)  [NOT: oyebbier]
• yab (up) + per (go) = yaper (to rise)  [NOT: yabper]
• yob (up) + kima (sloped) = yobkima (downward-sloping)
• yub (near) + per (go) = yuper (to approach)  [NOT: yubper]
• yib (far) + daler (talk) = yibdaler (to telephone)
• yiz (beyond) + per (go) = yizper (to surpass)
• yez (along) + per (go) = yezper (to go along)
• yuz (around) + pipen (sailing) = yuzpipen (circumnavigation)
• zay (ahead) + paser (move) = zaypaser (to advance)
• zao (back and forth) + baser (move) = zaobaser (to rock)
• ze (to the middle) + jaga (aged) = zejaga (middle-aged)
• zye (through) + teatyafwa (visible) = zyeteatyafa (transparent)
• zey (across) + mep (road) = zeymep (bridge)
• zoy (back) + nogea (gradual) = zoynogea (retrogressive)
• iz (straight) + nad (line) = iznad (vector)
• zi (to the right) + kum (side) = izkum (right side)
• zu (far) + tuyab (hand) = zutuyaba (left-handed)
• uz (on a curve) + nad (line) = uznad (curve)
• yan (together) + up (come) = yanup (a meeting)
• yon (apart) + ber (put) = yonber (to separate)

Word Order of Adverbs

The word order of adverbs is fairly free, as in English. But, to avoid ambiguity, the adverb should be placed immediately before or after the sentence element it modifies, eg.:

• It deuze vi.....He sings beautifully.
• Et yefe xer gwa ig.....You must do it as quickly as possible.
• Et hyoj ako fika ivan.....You will never gain perfect happiness.
• At voy te. (OR) At te voy. ....I do not know.

Comparison of Adverbs by Degree

Adverbs can be compared just as adjectives with the use of Quantitative Determiners. The words than, compared to, and as are translated by the relative conjunction vyel (than, compared to, with respect to)

Comparison of Adverbs by Degree

POSITIVE	+/=/- COMPARATIVE	+/- SUPERLATIVE
yikay....easily	ga yikay vyel....more easily than ge yikay vyel....as easily as go yikay vyel....less easily than	(ha) gwa yikay....(the) most easily (ha) gwo yikay....(the) least easily

Examples:

• At pipe ga fi vyel et.....I swim better than you.
• Yat tra hua twob go fi vyel yet.....We knew that man less well than you guys.
• Eta tayd deuza ha gwa vi be ha ebyek.....Your wife sang the most beautifully in the competition.
• Et xa has ha gwa fu vyel hyet.....You did it the worst compared to anyone.
• Dalu ge azay vyel et yafe.....Speak as loudly as you can.

Determiners are words that specify or point out the context of nouns and other parts of speech. The English determiner this, for example, specifies a noun for its proximity to the current context. In English, demonstrative pronouns/adjectives/adverbs, possessive pronouns/adjectives, quantifiers like more and very, and numeric expressions like both fall under this category.

Types of Determiners

Determiners in Mirad fall into the following categories:

Types of Determiners

TYPE	ALSO KNOWN AS	ENGLISH EXAMPLES
Deictic	Demonstrative Pronouns/Adjectives/Adverbs	the, this, some, every, which?, when
Pronominal	Possessive Pronouns/Adjectives	my, anybody's, one's own
Quantitative	Quantifiers	more, less, very
Numerical	Numerals/Fractions/Ordinals/Dates, etc.	one, half, first

Furthermore, as for part of speech, determiners can be adjectives, pronouns, or adverbs. As adjectives, determiners can itemize or classify. As pronouns, they can refer to one or more persons (male or female) or things. As adverbs, they can specify circumstance, i.e. time, place, degree, kind, age, frequency, and so forth.

Deictic Determiners

Deictic determiners are words which point out or specify other words as to their context, including what grammarians often call demonstratives. All deictic determiners in Mirad begin with the letter h. The letters following the h indicate the grammatical and semantic category.

Deictic determiners include the following traditional grammatical categories:

• Demonstrative adjectives like this, that, those, that one
• The definite article the    (which is really a demonstrative adjective like those above.)
• Demonstrative pronouns like this, that, those, that one
• Interrogative and relative pronouns like who, which, that
• Indefinite adjectives like any, some, all, something, such, etc.
• Indefinite pronouns like any, some, all, something, such, etc.
• Pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs of quantity like so much, that many, how many?, very, etc.
• Adverbs of circumstance:

• time like when, now, ever
• place like there, here, somewhere
• manner like how, thus, somehow
• kind like so, age this year old
• direction like that way, any which way
• reason why?, for that reason, for no reason
• degree this (well), so (good), how (bad)
• frequency like how often, so often, never
• age like this old, how old?, of any age

Deictic Prefixes

There is a whole set of correlative deictic prefixes, which are joined to circumstantial stub category suffixes to derive pronoun, adjective, and adverb determiners. In some grammars, these words are called wh-question words and their pointed answers. For example, QUESTION: Who is your wife? ANSWER: This is my wife. (or) QUESTION: Where is your house? ANSWER: My house is here. These word forms are called correlative because they relate to one another in way that can be mapped to a table.

Here are the Mirad deictic classification prefixes:

Deictic Prefixes

CLASSIFICATION	DEICTIC PREFIX
Interrogative	duho-...?....what?, which?
Relative	ho-....which, that
Exclamatory	hoo-....how...!
Definite	ha-....the
Indefinite	he-....some, a certain
Proximal	hi-....this, these
Immediate	hii-....the following
Distal	hu-....that, those
Intensive	huu-....such, so, what a...!
Distributive	hya-....every, all, each
Indeterminate	hye-....any, whatever
Negative	hyo-....no, not any
Identical	hyi-....the same, the very
Non-identical	hyu-....the other, another, else

Note: The Identical (hyi-) and Non-identical prefixes (hyu-) can optionally be substituted with ge- (same) and oge- (different), respectively.

Circumstantial Category Suffixes

The table below shows word stub suffixes that indicate the circumstantial category of deictic expressions. They are called stubs, because they are reduced word forms. The combination of deictic prefixes and circumstantial stub suffixes produce a matrix of deictic correlatives, seen later in this chapter. Use of the stub instead of the long form is a matter of optional economy. A few categories do not have stubs.

Category Stubs

CATEGORY	STUB	LONG FORM	QUESTION WORD EXAMPLE
Person	-t	tob...person	duhot?....who?
Thing	-s	sun...thing	duhos?....what?
Place	-m	nem...place	duhom?....where?
Time	-j	job...time	duhoj?....when?
Manner	-yen	byen...manner	duhoyen?....how?
Kind	-yena	syena...of a style	duhoyena?....what kind of?
Degree	-gla	nog...degree	duhogla fi?....how well?
Quantity	-gla	sag...number	duhogla pati?....how many birds?
Mass	-gla	glan...amount	duhogla mil?....how much water?
Frequency	-xag	xag...frequency	duhoxag?....how often?
Reason	-sav	sav	duhosav?....why?
Age	-jag	jag...age	duhojag?....how old?

There can be other circumstantial categories other than those listed above, such as "direction", "order", etc. eg. Duhomep wit pa?....Which way did he go?.

Charts of Correlative Deictic Determiners

Here is are three tables showing the matrix of correlative deictic determiners. Note that the determiners belong to three parts of speech, 1) adjectives, 2) pronouns, and 3) adverbs:

PART OF SPEECH	ENDING
Adjective	-a
Pronoun	-t(i), -s(i)
Adverb	(no ending)

Deictic Determiner Adjectives

All deictic determiner adjectives in in -a and are used to modify nouns.

Correlative Deictic Determiner Adjectives

	SELECTIVE -a	POSSESSIVE -ta	KIND/MANNER -yena	QUANTITY -gla	AGE -jaga	FREQUENCY -xaga
Interrogative	duhoa? which?	duhota? whose?	duhoyena? what kind of?	duhogla? how much/many?	duhojaga? how old?	duhoxaga? how frequent?
Relative	hoa which	hota whose	hoyena what kind of	hogla how much/many	hojaga how old	hoxaga how frequent
Exclamatory	hooa what a...!			hoogla look how much/many...!	hoojaga how old a...!
Definite	ha1 the	hatas the person’s	hayena of the kind	hagla of the amount	hajaga of the age	haxaga of the frequency
Indefinite	hea some/a certain	heta someone's	heyena some kind of	hegla some	hejaga somewhat old	hexaga sometimes
Proximal	hia this	hita this person’s	hiyena this kind of	higla this much	hijaga this old	hixaga this often
Immdediate	hiia the following	hiita the follow person’s	hiiyena the following kind of	hiigla to the following degree	hiijaga of the following age	hiixaga of the following frequency
Distal	hua that	huta that person’s	huyena that kind of	hugla that much/many	hujaga of that age	huxaga that often
Intensive	huua such a	huuta such a person’s	huuyena such kind of	huugla so much/many	huujaga of such an age	huuxaga so often
Negative	hyoa no	hyota nobody’s	hyoyena no kind of	hyogla no amount/number of	hyojaga of no age	hyoxaga of zero frequency
Distributive	hya1 every	hyata everybody’s	hyayena every kind of	hyagla all	hyajaga of every age	hyaxaga always
Indeterminate	hyea whichever/any2	hyeta whosever	hyeyena whatever/any kind of	hyegla however much/many	hyejaga however old	hyexaga however frequent
Identical	hyia the same	hyita the same person’s	hyiyena the same kind of	hyigla just as	hyijaga just as old	hyixaga just as often
Non-identical	hyua the other	hyuta someone else's	hyuyena another kind of	hyugla not as much/many	hyujaga of another age	hyuxaga not as often

Note 1: The determiners ha (the) and hya (every) are shortened forms of haa and hyaa. Also, ha is commonly called a "definite article".

• While hya means every or all, the word hyawa is used for each.
• The possessive adjective forms in the above table ending in -ta such as hyeta....whosever cannot be pluralized by the ending -tia. To say other people's, use the expression bi hyuti (Lit. of others).
• The ho- words are relative, meaning that they can serve to form relative clauses like the following:

• Ha toyb, hota twad se Bill,....The woman, whose husband is Bill,
• At voy te hos et tepfe.....I don't know what you mean.
• At teste hogla et fie iyt.....I understand how much you love her.

• The hoo- words are exclamatory and are used in expressions like the following:

• Hoogla iva se at van et upa!....How glad I am that you came!
• Hooa jub his saye!....What a day this has been! (Hooa is pronounced ho-O-a as three syllables.)

Note 2: The indeterminant determiners can also be translated with no matter what, no matter where, etc.

Deictic Determiner Pronouns

All deictic determiner pronouns end either in -t for persons or -s for things. They can be singular or plural (-i).

Correlative Deictic Determiner Pronouns

	THING -s THINGS -si	PERSON -t PERSONS -ti	KIND OF THING -yenas KINDS OF THINGS -yenasi	AMOUNT -glas NUMBER OF THINGS -glasi	NUMBER OF PEOPLE -glati
Interrogative	duhos?   what? duhosi?   what (things)?	duhot?   who? duhoti?   who (pl.)	duhoyenas?   what kind of thing? duhoyenasi?   what kinds of things?	duhoglas   how much? duhoglasi?   how many things?	duhoglati?   how many people?
Relative	hos   what hosi   what	hot   who hoti   who	hoyenas   what kind of thing hoyenasi	hoglas   how much hoglasi   how many	hoglati   how many
Exclamatory	hoos   what a thing! hoosi   what things!	hoot   what a person! hooti   what people!		hooglas   what an amount! hooglasi   what a number!	hoglati   what a number of people!
Definite	has   it hasi   they/them	hat   he/she/him/her hati   they/them	hayenas   the king of thing hayenasi   the kind of things	haglas   the amount haglasi   the number of things	haglati   the number of people
Indefinite	hes   something hesi   some things	het   someone heti   some	heyenas   some kind of thing heyenasi   some kinds of thing	heglas   some heglasi   some things	heglati   some people
Proximal	his   this hisi   these	hit   this person hiti   these people	hiyenas   this kind of thing hiyenasi   these kinds of things	higlas   this much higlasi   this many	higlati   this many people
Immediate	hiis   the following thing hiisi   the following things	hiit   the following person hiiti   the following people	hiiyenas   the following kind of thing hiiyenasi   the following kinds of things	hiiglas   the following amount hiiglasi   this following number of things	hiiglati   the following number of people
Distal	hus   that husi   those	hut   that person huti   those people	huyenas   that kind of thing huyenasi   those kinds of things	huglas   that much huglasi   that many	huglati   that many people
Intensive	huus   such a thing huusi   such things	huut   such a person huuti   such people	huuyenas   such a kind of thing huuyenasi   such kinds of things	huuglas   so much huuglasi   so many	huuglati   so many people
Negative	hyos   nothing hyosi   none of them	hyot   nobody hyoti   none of them	hyoyenas   no kind of thing hyoyenasi   no kinds of things	hyoglas   none hyoglasi   none	hyoglati   none
Distributive	hyas   everything hyasi   all of them	hyat   everybody hyati   all of them	hyayenas   every kind of hyayenasi   all kinds of things	hyaglas   all of it hyaglasi   all of them	hyaglati   all of them
Indeterminate	hyes   anything hyesi   any	hyet   anybody hyeti   any of them	hyeyenas   any kind of hyeyenasi   whatever things	hyeglas   any of it hyeglasi   any of them	hyeglati   whoever
Identical	hyis   the same thing hyisi   the same things	hyit   the same person hyiti   the same people	hyiyenas   the same kind of hyiyenasi   the same kinds of things	hyiglas   as much hyiglasi   as many	hyiglati   as many people
Non-identical	hyus   something else hyusi   other things	hyut   someone else hyuti   other people	hyuyenas   another kind hyuyenasi   other kinds	hyuglas   another amount hyuglasi   another number of things	hyuglati   another number of people

Concerning the above chart, note the following:

• The interrogative determiners all begin with duho-, which means say which, and are technically imperatives. Duhom?, for example, means Tell (me) the place.... The o-stem forms without the du- are used as relative clause heads, eg. At po hom et po.
    I will go where you go.
• Interrogatives usually come at the beginning of a sentence as in English, eg. Duhos se eta dyun?
    What is your name?
• Determiners come first before any other epithets of a noun, eg. Hia aga jaga tam...
    This big old house....
• Person and Thing determiners can be made selective by inserting a before the final t or s, eg. Duhot? means Who?, while Duhoat? means Which one (of several persons)?

Deictic Determiner Adverbs

All deictic determiner adverbs refer to a circumstance.

Correlative Deictic Determiner Adverbs

CIRCUMSTANCE-->	PLACE -m	TIME -j	MANNER -yen	DEGREE -gla	FREQUENCY -xag	REASON -sav
Interrogative	duhom? where?	duhoj? when?	duhoyen? how?	dugla? how (very)?	duxag? how often?	duhosav? why?
Relative	hom where	hoj when	hoyen how	hogla how (very)	hoxag how often	hosav because
Exclamatory			hooyen and how!	hoogla how very...!
Definite	ham the place	haj the time	hayen the manner	hagla just as	haxag as frequently	hasav the reason
Indefinite	hem somewhere	hej sometime	heyen somehow	hegla somewhat	hexag somewhat often	hesav for some reason
Proximal	him here	hij now	hiyen this way	higla this	hixag this often	hisav for this reason
Immediate	hiim the following place	hiij the following time	hiiyen the following way	hiigla to the following degree	hiixag at the following frequency	hiisav for the following reason
Distal	hum there	huj then	huyen that way	hugla to that degree	huxag that often	husav therefore
Intensive	huum such a place	huuj at such a time	huuyen in such a way	huugla so (very)	huuxag so often	huusav for such a reason
Negative	hyom nowhere	hyoj never	hyoyen in no way	hyogla not at all	hyoxag not once	hyosav for no reason
Distributive	hyam everywhere	hyaj always	hyayen in every way	hyagla fully	hyaxag always	hyasav for every reason
Indeterminate	hyem anywhere	hyej whenever	hyeyen however	hyegla however	hyexag however often	hyesav for whatever reason
Indentical	hyim at the same place	hyij at the same time	hyiyen in the same way	hyigla as	hyixag as often	hyisav for the same reason
Non-identical	hyum somewhere else	hyuj some other time	hyuyen otherwise	hyugla not as	hyuxag not as often	hyusav for some other reason

Concerning the above chart, note the following:

• The interrogative determiners all begin with duho-, which means say which, and are technically imperatives. Duhom?, for example, means Tell (me) the place.... The o-stem forms without the du- are used as relative clause heads, eg. At po hom et po.....I will go where you go.
• There are is a category not shown in the table:

• hoo-, used to form exlamatory determiners like Hoogla flia!....How marvelous! or Hooa via jub!....What a beautiful day!.

• Person determiners can be specified for gender. A determiner is made female by inserting a y after the ordinal, or male by inserting a w before the ordinal, eg. Huyti....those females or Hwit....this guy.
• Interrogatives usually come at the beginning of a sentence as in English, eg. Duhos se eta dyun?....What is your name?
• Determiners come first before any other epithets of a noun, eg. Hia aga jaga tam.......This big old house....
• Person and Thing determiners can be made selective by inserting a before the final t or s, eg. Duot? means Who?, while Duhoat? means Which one (of several persons)?

• Duhoas?'....Which one? (things), Hias....This one, etc.
• Duhoati?....Which ones? (people), Huati....Those, etc.
• Duhoyat?....Which of us?, Hyeyat....Any of us, etc.
• Duhoyet?....Which of you?, Hyayet....All of you, etc.
• Duhoyit?....Which of them?, Hyoyit....None of them, etc.

• Also not included in the above chart is a related interrogative, which is a complementizer.

• Duven...?.... (Question introducer) Is it true that...?, Say whether...

• Duven et se tadxwa?....Are you married? (= Say whether you are married.)

• The adverbs of degree in the above chart (duhogla?, etc.) are interchangeable with adverbs ending in -nog....degree (duhonog?....to what degree?, how...?, henog....somewhat)

• Other deictic determiner adverbs of circumstance exist and are not on the above chart:

• duhomep?....which way?

• humep....that way

• duhobyun?....to what end?

• hyobyun....for no purpose

• duhoizon?....in which direction?

• 'hyaizon....in every direction

• duhosauna....what kind of

• hyesauna....any kind of

Examples of Deictic Determiner Usage

• Duhos se eta dyun?....What is your name? (Duhos is pronounced du-HOS)
• Duhot se iyta twad?....Who is her husband?
• Duhowat se iyta twad?....Which one of the guys is her husband? (selective)
• Duhoti fe eker?....Who (pl.) want to play?
• Hyas se fia.....Everything is fine.
• Hyat tre et.....Everyone knows you.
• Hyot tre at.....Nobody knows me.
• Hyati ekeye fi.....All of them are playing well.
• Hyoti ekeye fi.....None of them are playing well.
• Hyet yafe eker.....Anyone can play.
• Hyes yafwe.....Anything is possible.
• At fe hyuyenat be ata ekutyan.....I want someone else on my team.
• Huuyenati fyuxe yata oj.....Such people harm our future.
• Et yefe tepier hiisi.....You must bear in mind the following things.
• Duhoyen et xa hus......How did you do that? (pronounced du-ho-YEN)
• Duhosav iyt pia huugla jwa?....Why did she leave so early?
• Hwita tam se ga aga.....This guy's house is bigger.
• At voy ayse ha dyuni bi huyti.....I don't have those women's names.
• Duhoa tam se etas?....Which house is yours?
• Huua tej et ayse!....What a life you have!
• Duhoyena dyezuni ifxe et?....What kind of movies do you like?
• Duhota tef okwa?....Whose hat was lost?
• Hota tef okwa bese otwas.....Whose hat was lost remains a mystery.
• Ha tob ta yata dyuni.....The man knew our names.
• Hoyena dini at ife, et ufe.....The kind of stories I love, you hate.
• Hea mepi gawdyunxwo.....Certain streets will be renamed.
• Heyena fukyes uxaye purilp nyaunx.....Some kind of accident has caused a traffic jam.
• Heta abtaf kaxwa be ha zatem......Someone's coat was found in the foyer.
• Hia dyes se ata gwafwas.....This book is my favorite.
• Hiia duni se ofwa.....The following words are prohibited.
• Hiiyena axlyen voy afwu.....The following sort of behavior would not be allowed.
• Hiyena axlyen voy vayafwo.....This type of behavior will not be tolerated.
• Hita tim so yolza.....This person's room will be blue.
• Hua mas efwe gawvozilbwer.....That wall needs to be repainted.
• Huua dini yufxe tudi.....Such stories scare children.
• Huyena duni voy yeyfwe yixwer za at.....Such words should not be used in front of me.
• Hwuta tam magseye.....That guy's house is on fire.
• Hyoa din se ga kyitesa.....No story is more important.
• Hyoyena tes tesiyafwe.....No such meaning can be inferred.
• Hyota jatexdras sa ga fia.....Nobody's plan is better.
• Hyos oboxe huyt.....Nothing bothers that gal.
• Hya mepi izpe Roma.....All roads lead to Rome.
• Hya ha mepi se ebwa.....All the roads are blocked.
• Hya twob yefe xer ita gon.....Every man must do his part.
• Hyayena telami ese be hia domep.....All manner of restaurants exist on this street.
• Hyata tej se uka bi yaobi.....Everyone's life is full of ups and downs.
• Hyaewa domi agsaye.....Both cities have grown.
• Hyea voz so fia.....Any color will be fine.
• Hyeyena til se aysyafwa.....Any kind of drink is available.
• Hyeta ved se ge ifa vyel atas.....Anyone's guess is as good as mine.
• Hyea tim et fe et yafe ayser.....Whatever room you want, you can have.
• Hyia/(Ha gea) fukyesi kyese glaxag.....The same accidents occur frequently.
• Hyiyena/(Ha geyena) dyezuni teaxuwa zajub.....The same kind of films were shown yesterday.
• Hyita/(Ha geta) dyun yixwa gajod.....The same person's name was used again.
• Hyua dyezun sa ga ifuyea.....The other movie was more entertaining.
• Hyuyena/(Ogeyena) som teasu ga fia.....Another kind of furniture would look better.
• Hyuta/(ogeta) texyen se ge fyia.....Someone else's opinion is equally valid.
• Ha dyuni bi hiyti voy dodrawe.....These women's names have not be make public.
• Ha dyuni bi hwiiti voy dodrowe.....The following males' names will not be publicized.
• Hijaga tobweti voy afwo him.....Boys of this age will not be allowed here.
• Duhom et tambese?....Where do you live?
• At tambese hum.....I live there.
• Et tambese hom ha mep uje.....You live where the road ends.
• Duhom yet peye?....Where are you guys going?
• Et yafe per hyem et fu.....You can go anywhere you would like.
• Duhom et byise?....Where are you from? (Lit: Where do you originate.
• Duhoj et taja?....When were you born?
• At voy tajaya huj.....I had not been born then.
• Et yeyfe duder hiiyen.....You should respond in the following way.
• Ot voy yefe daler huuyen.....One must not talk in such a manner.
• Et pia hesav.....He left for some reason.
• Duhoyen et iyfe hia vifil?....How do like this wine?
• Voy se fia axler hiyen.....It is not good to act this way.
• Duhosav et tadsa huugla jwa?....Why did you marry so late?
• Ha twob pia hyosav.....The man left for no reason.
• Hwat pia hosav it efa per hem.....The guy left because he needed to go somewhere.
• Hyeta texyen so fia.....Anyone's opinion will be fine.
• Duhota dyes se his?....Whose book is this?
• Bi hoti se hia dyesi?....Whose are these books?
• Hyata tili yebexe yom.....Everyone's drinks contain ice.
• Et se gaj geyenat( ~ hyiyenat).'....You are still the same kind of person.

The semantic reverser o- can be prefixed to some of the above deictic determiners:

Ohyat tiste Platon.....Not everyone understands Plato.

Ohut!'....Not that person!

At iyfe gwa apovili, oy ohuas!....I like most beers, but not that one!

If the definite article or any other deictic determiner is omitted before a noun, then it has the effect of the English indefinite article a / an with a singular noun or some with a plural noun. For example:

• Yat tilia ha tilyeb bi vifil.....We drank the glass of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia tilyeb bi vifil.....We drank a glass of wine.

• Yat tilia ha tilyebi bi vifil.....We drank the glasses of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia tilyebi bi vifil.....We drank (some) glasses of wine.

• Yat tilia awa tilyeb bi vifil.....We drank one glass of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia ha awa tilyeb bi vifil.....We drank the one glass of wine.

• Yat tilia ewa tilyebi bi vifil.....We drank two glasses of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia ha ewa tilyebi bi vifil.....We drank the two glasses of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia hya ewa tilyebi bi vifil.....We drank both glasses of wine.

• Yat tilia owa tilyeb bi vifil.....We drank no/zero glasses (=not a single glass) of wine.

• Yat tilia ea tilyeb bi vifil.....We drank another/a second glass of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia ha ea tilyeb bi vifil.....We drank the second glass of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia ea tilyebi bi vifil.....We drank second glasses of wine., vs.
  • Yat tilia ha ea tilyebi bi vifil.....We drank the second glasses of wine.

If an indefinite article sense is needed for clarity, the words awa (one) or hea (some, a certain) can be used, eg.:

• At igteata awa tob yiztyoper.....I glimpsed a man walk by.
• Wit zoyupo hea juab.....He will come back on a / a certain / some Monday.

Selective vs. Non-Selective Forms

The deictic interrogative determiner pronoun duhot? means who(m) and contrasts with its selective counterpart duhoat?, which means which one?. All the selective determiners refer to one or more things or persons from a selectable pool of things or persons.

The following sentences illustrate the use of the above determiner pronouns:

• Duhot aka zajuba ek?....Who won yesterday's game?
• Duhoat bi ha akuti sa ha gwa fiat?....Which one of the winners was the best?
• Duhota tam se hus?....Whose house is that?
• Duhotas se hus?....Whose is that?
• Duhotia deuzi et gaife?....Whose songs do you prefer?
• Duhotias et gaife?....Whose do you prefer?
• Duhos se eta dyun?....What is your name?
• Duhosi se eta gaifuni?....What are your preferences?
• Duhoa deuzi se eta gwa fiasi?....Which songs are your best?
• Duhoasi se eta gwa fiasi?....Which ones are your best?
• Bi hia deuzuti, hoat et gaife?....Of these vocalists, which one do you prefer?
• Hiiti yaneko hijub.....The following people will compete today.
• Duhoati se gwa fia?....Which ones are best?
• Duhoti et teexe gwa jodi?....Who (all) do you listen to the most often?
• Hoat at teexe gwaxag draye ejna deuz.....The one I listen to the most has written a new song.
• Ejna deuz? At voy teste hoas et tede.....New song? I don't understand which one you mean.
• Hias.....This one.
• Vo. Huasi se ga fia.....No. Those are better.
• His se jub av ivxelen.....This is a day for celebration.
• Va. Hia jub. At tese hijub.....Yes. This day. I mean To-day.
• Husi sa ha jubi, ata dat!....Those were the days, my friend!
• Duhos se eta dyun?....What is your name?
• Duhot aka ha igpek?....Who won the race?
• Hyas uja fi.....Everything ended well.
• Hyasi uje.....All things come to an end.
• Hyayenasi vey kyesu.....All sorts of things might happen.
• Hyos yokxa at.....Nothing surprised me.
• Hyot ta hot ako.....Nobody knew who would win.
• Hoayti fu pier yefe.....Those females who would like to leave may.
• Hyet yefe eker hia ifek.....Anyone can play this game.
• Huyenasi voy afwo.....Such things will not be permitted.
• Hua twob voy taxe hia toyb.....That man does not remember this woman.
• Hwuti yanyexe fi.....Those guys work well together.
• Huuyti hyaj yubixe tepzex.....Such females always attract attention.
• At jay teataye hiyenasi.....I've seen such things before.
• Huyenwat voy vabiwu.....A guy like that would not be accepted.
• Duhoyenasi weti iyfe xer je ha maj.....What kinds of things do you guys like to do during the day?

Numerical Deictic Determiners

Sometimes, a deictic determiner specifies numerical information. This chart shows those forms:

Number-incorporating Deictic Determiners

ADJECTIVE	INANIMATE PRONOUN	ANIMATE PRONOUN	PRONOMINAL DETERMINER	POSSESSIVE PRONOUN
hawa1 the only	hawas the only thing hawasi the only things	hawat the only one (person) hawati the only ones	hawata the only person's	hawatas the only one's hawatasi the only one's (things)
hyawa* each	hyawas each one	hyawat each person	hyawata each person's	hyawatas each one's hyawatasi each one's (things)
hyaewa both	hyaewasi both (things)	hyaewati both (people)	bi hyaewati both person's	has bi hyaewati both person's hasi bi hyaewati both persone's (things)
hyaiwa all three	hyaiwasi all three (things)	hyaiwati all three (people)	hyaiwata all three person's	has bi hyaiwati all three person's hasi bi hyaiwati all three person's (things)
ohyawa not every	ohyawas not everything	ohyawat not everyone	ohyawata not every person's	ohyawatas not everyone's ohyawatasi not everyone's (things)
hyoawa not a single	hyoawas not a single thing	hyoawat not a single person	hyowata not a single person's	hyowatas not a single person's hyowatasi not a single person's (things)
hyeawa either	hyeawas either one	hyeawat either one (person)	hyeawata either one's	hyeawatas either one's hyeawatasi either one's (things)
hyeewa any two	hyeewasi any two things	hyeewati any two people	bi hyeewati any two person's	has bi hyeewati any two persons' hasi bi hyeewati any two persons' (things)
hyeowa neither	hyeowas neither one	hyeowat neither person	hyeawata neither person's	hyeowatas neither one's hyeowatasi neither one's (things)
hyuawa another	hyuawas another one	hyuawat another	hyuawata another's	hyuawatas another's hyuawatasi another's (things)
hyuowa no other	hyuowas nothing else	hyuowat nobody else	hyuowata no other's	hyuowatas no other's hyuowatasi no other's (things)
gawa2 another	gawas another one	gawat another (person)	gawata another's	gawatas another's gawatasi another's (things)

1Hawa and hyawa are short for haawa and hyaawa, respectively.

2Gawa is short for ga awa, yet one.

Notes on Numerical Deictic Determiners

Examples using the above number-incorporating deictic determiners:

• Ohyawat se iva bay eta vaod.....Not everyone is happy with your decision.
• Hyaewasi yafwe uxer yata efi.....Both (things) can serve our needs.
• Hyeawa tim ivlaxo at.....Either room will satisfy me.
• Hyeowas oivlaxo at.....Neither one will dissatisfy me.

Note:

• hyua means another (an alternative). Ex. At fu hyua til.....I would like another (a different) drink.
• hyuawa means another (an additional). Ex. At fu hyuawa til.....I would like another (an additional) drink.
• ha hyua means the other (the alternative). Ex. At fu ha hyua til.....I would like the other drink.

Similarly, hya means every, all, while hyawa means each, and hyaha....all the, ex:

• Hya dom ayse tebixea suni teaxer.....Every city has interesting things to see.
• Hya domi ayse tebixusi.....All cities have things of interest.
• Hyaha domi ayse tebixusi.....All the cities have things of interest.
• Hyawa dom ayse tebixun.....Each city has something of interest.

Also, ha means the, while hawa means the only, eg.:

• Ha twob hu at gwa ife se et.....The man I most love is you.
• Hawa toyb nazea ata tepzex se et.....The only woman worth my attention is you.

By appending y to hawa, we get the adverb haway....only, solely, eg;

• Haway et nize ata tepzex.....Only you deserve my attention..

The singular person pronouns in the above chart can be converted into pronominal determiners by adding the adjective suffix a, eg.:

• Hyawata tej se ge glatesa vyel hyutas.....Each one's life is as important as another's.
• Hyeowata dyun se vyama.....Neither person's name is real.

However, the plural person pronouns in the above chart use the preposition bi (of) to form possessives, eg.:

• Ha teji bi hyaiwati se kyebukuwa.....The lives of all three are in danger.

The above singular pronominal determiners can, in turn, be converted into inanimate pronouns with the suffix -s.

• Hyawatas se glatesa.....Each one's is important.
• Hyeowatas se vyama.....Neither's is real.

The plural pronominal determiners can be nominalized with the use of bi, eg:

• Hyaiwasi bi huti se kyebukuwa.....All three of theirs' are in danger.

Correlative Number-incorporating Deictic Determiners are handled as follows:

• Hyeawa A ey B....either A or B
• Hyeowa A oy B....neither A nor B
• Hyaewa A ay B....both A and B
• Hawa A, voy B....only A, not B

elsewhere.

The different, somewhat confusing, meanings of how are illustrated here:

• Duhoyen wit xa hus?....How did he do that?.... (Equivalent to Be duha byen...?....In what way...?) (ADVERB OF MANNER)
• Duhoyen et xeye?....How are you doing?.... (This is the normal way of saying How are you? or How do you do? (ADVERB OF MANNER)
• Duhoyena sa ha dyezun?.... How was the film?.... (How here is an ADJECTIVE OF KIND, and thus ends in -a.)
• Duhonog (= Duhogla) aga it se?....How big is he?.... (ADVERB OF DEGREE)
• Huunog (= Huugla) iyfla et se!....How nice you are!.... (ADVERB OF EMPHATIC DEGREE)

The conjunction as is expressed most often using relative pro-adverbs of manner:

• Xu hoyen at de.....Do as I say. = (in) the way that...
• Xu hyiyen (~ geyen) at xe.....Do as I do. ( = (in) the same way that...)
• Xu hiiyen:....Do as follows. ( = (in) this hereby manner...)

However, the preposition/conjunction gel (like, as) can be substituted:

• Xu gel at de.....Do as I say.

Many of the determiner adverbs in the above chart can be used in relative clauses, eg:

• At teato et hoj et puo him.....I will see you when you get here.
• It xa has hosav tosa yefa.....He did it because (for the reason that) he felt compelled.
• Hyehom et po, et so ga iva.....Wherever you go, you'll be happier.
• Hyet te ha did, yabu eta tuyab.....Whoever knows the answer, raise your hand.
• At te hoyen et xa is.....I know how you did it.

See more about this in the section on relative clauses under Syntax.

Pronominal Deictic Determiners

Some words in Mirad incorporate deictic prefixes with pronouns and pronominal adjectives, as shown in the following chart:

Pronominal Deictic Determiners

Pronoun
1st Person Plural	2nd Person Plural	3rd Person Plural
duhoyat which of us	duhoyet which of you	duhoyit which of them
heyat some of us	heyet some of you	heyit which of them
hyayat each of us	hyayet each of you	hyayit each of them
hyeyat any of us	hyeyet any of you	hyeyit any of them
hyoyat none of us	hyoyet none of you	hyoyit none of them
Pronominal Adjective
1st Person (Plural)	2nd Person (Plural)	3rd Person (Plural)
duhoyata which of our	duhoyet which of your	duhoyita which of their
heyata some of our	heyeta some of your	heyita which of their
hyayata each of our	hyayeta each of your	hyayita each of their
hyeyata any of our	hyeyeta any of your	hyeyita any of their
Singular/(Plural) Possessive Pronoun
1st Person (Plural)	2nd Person (Plural)	3rd Person (Plural)
duhoyatas(i) which of ours	duhoyetas(i) which of yours	duhoyitas(i) which of theirs
heyatas(i) some of ours	heyetas(i) some of yours	heyitas(i) which of theirs
hyayatas(i) each of ours	hyayetas(i) each of yours	hyayitas(i) each of theirs
hyeyatas(i) any of ours	hyeyetas(i) any of yours	hyeyitas(i) any of theirs
hyoyatas(i) none of ours	hyoyetas(i) none of yours	hyoyitas(i) none of theirs

The above possessive pronouns refer to things. If you replace the final -s or -si, to -t or -ti, then they become animate and refer to people, eg.:

• Ese ewa tudi him. Duhoyitas se his?....There are two children here. Which one of theirs is this?

All of the forms in the above chart can also be expressed as separate words, eg.:

• Duhoyet?  ~  Duhoat bi yet?....Which one of you?
• Hyayat  ~  Hyaglati bi yet....All of us.
• Hyoyatasi  ~  Hyogla yatasi....All of ours (things)

Note:

• Awayat  ~  Awat bi yat....one of us
• Hyaewayet  ~  Hyaewat bi yet....both of you
• Hyaiwayit  ~  Hyaiwat bi yit....all three of them

Quantitative Deictic Determiners

The deictic prefixes can be combined with gla to form quantitative expressions acting as adverbial or adjectival determiners, and substantives (pronouns referring to things or people):

Quantitative Deictic Determiners

	ADVERBIAL / ADJECTIVAL DETERMINER	INANIMATE SINGULAR PRONOUN	INANIMATE PLURAL PRONOUN	ANIMATE PLURAL PRONOUN
Interrogative	duhogla? how?/how much?/how many?	duhoglas? how much?	duhoglasi? how many	duhoglati? how many (people)?
Relative	hogla as many/much	hoglas how much	duhoglasi how many	duhoglati how many (as)
Definite	hagla how/as much/as many	haglas as much	haglasi as many	haglati as many (people)
Indefinite	hegla somewhat/some/some	heglas some	heglasi some	heglati some (people)
Proximal	higla this/this much/this many	higlas this much	higlasi this many	higlati this many (people)
Distal	hugla that/that much/that many	huglas that much	huglasi that many	huglati that many (people)
Intensive	huugla so very, so much, so many	huuglas so much	huuglasi so many	huuglati so many (people)
Negative	hyogla none, not very	hyoglas none of it	hyoglasi none of them	hyoglati none
Distributive	hyagla totally/all/all	hyaglas all of it	hyaglasi all of them	hyaglati all
Indeterminate	hyegla however/any/any	hyeglas any of it	hyeglasi any of them	hyeglati any number of them
Identical	hyigla as/as much/as many, equally	hyiglas the same amount	hyiglasi the same number	hyiglati as many (people)
Non-identical	hyugla not as much/not as much/not as many	hyuglas a different amount	hyuglasi a different number of things	hyuglati a different number of people

Here are some examples showing how these quantitative determiners are used:

• Et deuze huugla fi.....You sing so well.
• At se hegla booka.....I am somewhat tired.
• Duhogla pati et teata hijub?....How many birds did you see today?
• At teata vyavay hugla tami.....I saw exactly that many houses.
• Iyt fe hyiglas vyel et.....She wants the same amount as you.
• Duhoglati yantexe yet?....How many (people) agree with you?
• Hyoglati yantexe.....None agree.
• Yit fu heglasi.....They would like some (of them).
• Et yafe bier hyehoglasi et fe.....You can take however many you want.
• Besu bay at hogla job et fe.....Stay as long with me as you want.
• At se huugla booka.....I am so tired.

NOTE: The following determiners are synonymous and interchangeable:

• hegla = gle = henog (somewhat, to some degree)
• hyigla = ge = hyinog (as, equally, to the same degree)

The determiner huugla can be used as an exclamatory adverb, eg.:

• Huugla et agsaye!....How you have grown!
• Hua twob jagsaye huugla!....That man has aged so much!
• Hia jotul se huugla fiteluza!....This dessert is sooo delicious!

Pronominal Determiners

Pronominal Determiners are what are more often called possessive adjectives such as my or your and are discussed in a subsection of Pronouns.

Quantitative Determiners

Quantitative determiners act in one of several ways, they:

• specify mass, uncountable, singular nouns for relative AMOUNT, eg. much happiness, less work
• specify countable nouns for relative NUMBER, eg. one apple, two birds, many places
• specify adverbs, adjectives, and verbs for relative DEGREE, eg. how poorly, very good, eat too much.

From these, pronominalized quantitative determiners for PERSONS and THINGS can be derived.

• Inanimate singular pronouns are formed by adding s for AN AMOUNT OF A THING
• Inanimate plural pronouns are formed by adding si for A NUMBER OF THINGS
• Animate plural pronouns are formed by adding ti for A NUMBER OF PERSONS.

The following table presents most of these word forms (Note that the determiners are in a plus (+), equal (=), or minus (-) row.):

Quantitative Determiners

Adverb / Adjective		Singular Pronoun	Plural Pronoun
Degree/Amount/Number		Amount	Number of Things	Number of People
+	ga....more	gas....more (stuff)	gasi....many (things)	gati....many (people)
=	ge....as, as much, as many	ges....as much (stuff)	gesi....as many (things)	geti....as many people
-	go....less, fewer	gos....less (stuff)	gosi....fewer (things)	goti....fewer (people)
+	gla....very, much, many glay....so, so much, so many glaa....several	glas....much (stuff) glays....so much stuff)	glasi....many (things) glaysi....so many (things) glaasi....several things	glati....many (people) glayti....so many (people) glaati....several people
=	gle....rather, quite a lot, quite a few	gles....quite a lot (of stuff)	glesi....quite a lot (of things)	gleti....quite a few (people)
-	glo....slightly, a little, few	glos....a little bit	glosi....a few (things)	gloti....few (people)
+	gra....too, too much, too many	gras....too much (stuff)	grasi....too many (things)	grati....too many (people)
=	gre....enough	gres....enough (stuff)	gresi....enough (things)	greti....enough (people)
-	gro....insufficiently, too little, too few	gros....too little	grosi....too few	groti....too few (people)
+	gwa....most	gwas....the most (stuff)	gwasi....the most (things)	gwati....most people
=	gwe....just so (much/many)	gwes....just so much	gwesi....just so many	gweti....just so many (people)
-	gwo....least	gwos....the least (stuff)	gwosi....the least (number of)	gwoti....the least number (of people)

Examples Using Graded Quantitative Determiners

Adverbs of degree modifying an adjective:

• At se gla iva.....I am very happy.
• Et sa gra uga.....You were too slow.

Adverbs of Degree modifying another adverb:

• Twobi dale ge igay vyel toybi.....Men talk as fast as women.
• Yat yexe ga igay vyel yet.....We work faster (= more quickly) than you.

Adjectives quantifying a singular mass noun:

• Ga nas efwo.....More money will be needed.
• Gra nas noxwa.....Too much money was spent.

Adjectives quantifying a plural countable noun (= things or people):

• At ayse gro sari.....I've got too few tools.
• Gla tami osexwa.....Many houses were destroyed.
• Yat efe gla ga valkdibuti.....We need many more policemen.

Pronouns referring to a mass amount of something (= stuff):

• Gas ilokeye.....More (stuff) is leaking.
• Et dileye gras.....You are asking for too much (stuff).
• Yat kexo gwas.....We will seek as much (stuff) as possible.
• At iba gwes.....I received just the right amount.

Pronouns referring to a countable number of things:

• Hisi se fia oy yat fe gasi.....These (items) are good but we want more (items).
• At teate drilari oy grosi.....I see pens, but too few.

Pronouns referring to a countable number of people:

• Grati xaye vyoki be hia yexem.....Too many (people) have made mistakes at this work site.
• Glati dyunwe oy gloti kebiwe.....Many are called but few are chosen.

Numerical Determiners

This category of determiners, which includes cardinal, ordinal and other number words like two, a tenth, and first, is such a vast topic that it is treated in its own chapter Mirad_Grammar/Numbers

Types of Numbers

Numerals are words used to vocalize numbers, which are scalar symbols used to count and quantify things and people. For example the numeral two is how the number 2 is read or spoken. Mirad uses Arabic numbers (0, 1, 2, 3...), as in all Western World languages.

Numerals can be various parts of speech:

• numeric nouns (The score was six to four.)
• numeric pronouns (I want two. Give me the fifth one.)
• numeric determiners (Five days ago. The fifth day. A double dose.)
• prefixes (monochrome, bicentennial, triangle)
• rootwords (anxer....to unite, onxer....to annihilate)

Number-based words include:

• cardinal numbers (one, two, three... used in counting and arithmetic)
• ordinal numbers (first, second... indicating ordered position)
• multiplicative numbers (double, triple, foursome...)
• fractional numbers (half, third, hundredth...)
• frequency numbers (once, twice, thrice...)
• miscellaneous number-based words (only, percentage, annihilate)

Cardinal Numbers

The cardinal numbers are words used in counting and reciting numerals such as telephone numbers, social security numbers, and zip codes, and in arithmetic. They are also used as the so-called "ordinal" stem vowels of words that relate to one another in a scalar, hierarchical, or some other ontological relationship. See this in the chapter on Vocabulary Formation.

Units

• The cardinal unit numerals are formed from the simple and pre-y-glided vowels.

Units

0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
o	a	e	i	u	yo	ya	ye	yi	yu
zero	one	two	three	four	five	six	seven	eight	nine

• Ata yibdalar sag se 703-842-6190 (pronounced: ye-o-i-yi-u-e-ya-a-yu-o).....My telephone number is....
• At tambese 114 (pronounced: a-a-u) Maple Street.
• E gab e se u.....Two plus two is four.

Decades

• The decade formant -l- is used to form the decades. Followed by -o....zero, we have the base decade numerals. These can be used for number recitation, arithmetic, and as numeric adjectives followed by plural nouns:

Decades with the -l- Formant

10	20	30	40	50	60	70	80	90
alo	elo	ilo	ulo	yolo	yalo	yelo	yilo	yulo
ten	twenty	thirty	forty	fifty	sixty	seventy	eighty	ninety

By changing the o....zero in lo to other cardinal unit numerals, the numerals within decades can be generated as follows:

Decadal Counting

ala....11	ela....21	ila....31	ula....41	yola....51	yala....61	yela....71	yila....81	yula....91
ale....12	ele....22	ile....32	ule....42	yole....52	yale....62	yele....72	yile....82	yule....92
...	...	...	...	...	...	...	...	...
alyu....19	elyu....29	ilyu....39	ulyu....49	yolyu....59	yalyu....69	yelyu....79	yilyu....89	yulyu....99

• At ayse alo dati.....I have ten friends.
• It yafe sagder byu alyo.....He can count up to fifteen.
• Yulyu gob alo gese yilyu.....Ninety-nine minus ten equals eighty-nine.

Hundreds

• By adding the hundreds formant s, you get the hundreds:

Hundreds with the -s- Formant

100	200	300	400	500	600	700	800	900
aso	eso	iso	uso	yoso	yaso	yeso	yiso	yuso

All the in-between numerals of the hundreds can be generated by modifying the so ending with the units and decades:

• asa....101
• asale....112
• usyulyu....599

Thousands

• The thousands are generated with the formant r:

Note: The number categories starting with the thousands on up end in -o and are separated from the rest of a number by a space.

Thousands

1000	2000	3000	4000	5000	6000	7000	8000	9000
aro	ero	iro	uro	yoro	yaro	yero	yiro	yuro

• aro....1,000
• aro a....1,001
• ero isi....2,300
• yoro yasula....5,641

Millions

• The millions are generated with the formant ml:

Millions with the -ml- Formant

1,000,000	2,000,000	3,000,000	4,000,000	5,000,000	6,000,000	7,000,000	8,000,000	9,000,000
amlo	emlo	imlo	umlo	yomlo	yamlo	yemlo	yimlo	yumlo

• emlo yala....2,000,051
• umlo esu....4,000,204
• yumlo usyoro isyala....9,405,361

Billions

• The billions are generated with the formant mr;

Billions

1,000,000,000	2,000,000,000	3,000,000,000	4,000,000,000	5,000,000,000	6,000,000,000	7,000,000,000	8,000,000,000	9,000,000,000
amro	emro	imro	umro	yomro	yamro	yemro	yimro	yumro

In numbers ending in -ro (thousand), -mlo (million), and -mro (billion), these numbers keep the -o and are separated by a space from the other elements of the number.

• imro emlo yoro asyula....three billion, two million, five thousand, one hundred fifty one
• iro asyulyo....3,195
• yamlo asyulyo....6,000,195
• alomro yelyomlo asyilyaro yusele....10,075,186,922

Trillions etc.

The trillions are generated with the word garale, which means 10 to the positive power of 12 or 10¹².

These numbers do not combine with surrounding numbers.

• i garale....3,000,000,000
• eso garale....200,000,000,000

Even higher numbers are shown in the Number Chart later in this chapter.

Numeric Determiners

Numeric Determiners are adjectives based on numerals that modify a following noun.

Integers

The unit numeric integer determiners, which are used to quantify nouns, consist of the cardinal units followed by the unit formant wa. The noun following the numeric determiner is plural if the number is greater than one. The wa formant is used on unit numerals when they are stand-alone, not when they are part of a larger number. In contrast with English usage, "zero" is followed by a singular noun (zero box vs. zero boxes. Think of it as not a single box).

Standalone Unit Numeric Determiners

owa tam	awa tam	ewa tami	iwa tami	uwa tami	yowa tami	yawa tami	yewa tami	yiwa tami	yuwa tami
no/zero houses	one house	two houses	three houses	four houses	five houses	six houses	seven houses	eight houses	nine houses

If a unit number is used in forming larger numbers like 13 or 204, no wa is used.

In a sequence of noun modifiers, the numerical determiner goes in the same place as in English, eg:

• Ata iwa gajaga twidi bese bay at.....My three older brothers live with me.
• Hia uwa tomi losexwo.....These four buildings will be destroyed.
• At fu ewa ey iwa gouni.....I would like two or three pieces.

The numeric determiners beyond the units do NOT take the -wa suffix. For example, ala tami....eleven houses.

Numeric Determiners modifying a singular or plural noun

Mirad	English	Wa Behavior	Pluralization Behavior
owa tam	no houses, zero houses	The numeral is a unit, so wa is suffixed.	The numeral is less than 2, so the noun is singular.
awa tam	one house, a house	"	"
ewa tami	two houses	"	The numeral is greater than 2, so the noun is plural.
iwa tami	three houses	"	"
uwa tami	four houses	"	"
yowa tami	five houses	"	"
yawa tami	six houses	"	"
yewa tami	seven houses	"	"
yiwa tami	eight houses	"	"
yuwa tami	nine houses	"	"
alo tami	ten houses	The numeral is not a unit so no wa is suffixed.	"
ase tami	a hundred two houses	"	"
ero iwa tami	two thousand three houses	The numeral i is a unit, so wa is suffixed.	"
iro alo tami	three thousand ten houses	The numeral alo is not a unit, so wa is not suffixed.	"

Numeric determiners can be pronominalized as things and persons by suffixing s or t, respectively. These can, in turn, be pluralized by suffixing i. Furthermore, person pronouns can be feminized with a y before the t. The s suffix is short for sun....thing or suni....things. The t ending is short for aot....person or aoti....persons. For example:

• Et ayse awa tam. At gey ayse awas. (singular inanimate pronoun)....You have one house. I have one too.
• At aysa alo drari. Hij at ayse anay ewasi (plural inanimate pronoun).....I had ten pencils. Now I only have two.
• Esa asoti yeb be ha duzam. (plural animate pronoun).... There were a hundred people in the concert hall.
• Yat yefe kebier awoyt bi huti. (singular animate female pronoun)....We must choose one female person from those people.

Ordinals

Ordinal numeric determiners (= ordinals) like first, second, etc. are formed from the cardinal numerals by adding the adjectival ending a to the cardinal numeral. A variation of this is with the word nap (order) inserted:

Ordinal Numeric Determiners

Cardinal Numeral	Ordinal Numeric Determiner	Variation with nap (order)
o....zero	oa....zeroth	onapa....zeroth
a....one	aa....first	anapa....first
e....two	ea....second	enapa....second
i....three	ia....third	inapa....third
alo....ten	aloa....tenth	alonapa....tenth
asu....104	asua....104th	asunapa....104th
garale....trillion	garalea....trillionth	garalenapa....trillionth

Note: ana is an adjective meaning only, single, eg. Iyt se ana tud.....She is an only child. As an adverb, anay means only, eg. At yexe anay be tam.....I work only at home.

There are other ordinal adjectives that are not based on numbers:

Ordinal Words Not Based on Numbers

Root Word	Ordinal Word
ij....beginning	ijna or ijnapa....first
uj....end	ujna or ujnapa....last
aj....past	ajna or ajnapa....ex-, former, previous
oj....future	ojna or ojnapa....future, upcoming
ej....present	ejna or ejnapa....current, new, present
ja....before	jana or janapa....previous, last, foregoing
jo....after	jona or jonapa....next, following
za....in front of	zana or zanapa....next
zo....behind	zona or zonapa....last (previous, foregoing)

Ordinal determiners and adjectives can be converted to adverbs by adding the suffix y to the adjectival counterparts:

Ordinal Adverbs

ADJECTIVE	ADVERB
aa....first	aay....firstly
anapa....first	anapay....primarily
ea....second	eay....secondly
ujna....last	ujnay....finally

Ordinal determiners can be converted to animate pronouns (persons) with the suffix t and inanimate pronouns (things) with the suffix s. These, in turn, can be pluralized with the suffix i. Neutral-gender animate pronouns can be made specifically masculine or feminine by changing at to wat for the former, and to ayt for the latter:

• ha aas....the first thing
• ha aat....the first person
• ha aati....the first people
• hua aayt....that first female
• ha enapas....the second thing
• ewat....another guy
• Ha ujnati so ha ijnati.....The last shall be first.
• ha zanapat....the next fellow

Again, in the sequencing of stacked adjectival elements, the order is as in English, that is: <deictic or pronominal determiner> | <ordinal determiner> | <cardinal numerical determiner> | <adjective>

• hua uwa aga tami....those four big houses
• ha aa alo oga tami....the first ten little houses
• ata anapa ewa oga tudi....my first two little children

Note: Ordinal numeric determiners are not to be confused with ordinal vowels, which are used to derive scalar iterations of nouns. Cardinal numbers are used in the latter case, eg.:

• dob....state (1st level)
• dab....government (2nd level derivative)
• deb....leader (3rd level derivative)
• dib....administration (4th " " )
• dub....minister (5th " " )

Fractions

Fractional numeric determiners ( = fractions) like half and quarter are formed by adding -yn for those functioning as nouns, -yna for adjectives, -ynay for adverbs, or -yn for prefixes, to the respective cardinal number.

Fractional Numeric Determiners

CARDINAL NUMERAL	FRACTION AS NOUN	AS ADJECTIVE	AS ADVERB	AS PREFIX	AS VERB
o....zero	oyn....a void, vacuum, null	oyna....null, nil	--	oyn-....devoid of	oynxer....annihilate, nullify
a....one	ayn....whole	ayna....entire, whole	aynay....entirely	ayn-....holo-, whole-, all-	aynxer....integrate
e....two	eyn....a half	eyna....half	eynay....halfway	eyn-....half-, semi-, hemi-, demi-	eynxer....halve
i....three	iyn....a third	iyna....third	iynay....by a third	iyn-....terci-	iynxer....cut in third
u....four	uyn....a quarter	uyna....quarter	uynay....quarterly	uyn-....quadri-	uynxer....quarter
alo....ten	aloyn....a tenth	aloyna....tenth	aloynay....by a tenth	aloyn-....deci-	aloynxer....decimate
aso....hundred	asoyn....hundredth, percent	asoyna....hundredth	asoynay....by a hundredth	asoyn-....centi-	asoynxer....cut by a hundred

Here are some examples:

• His uxo ha oynxen bi yata mir.....This will cause the anihilation of our world.
• Ha ayna mir te ayv et.....The whole world knows about you.
• Is se gas vyel ha ayn bi isa goni.....It is more than the whole of its parts.
• Ferad se ayndyana dalzeyn.....French is a holophrastic language.
• Et yafe bier eyn bi is.....You can take half of it.
• Yat yefo eynxer eta yexnix.....We will have to halve your salary.
• Hus sa eynvyan.....That was a half-truth.
• Eso eynzyunida dropek.....There is going to be a hemispheric war.
• Duven his se eynutexea dopar?....Is this a semi-automatic weapon?
• Iynxu hua absakpovel.....Cut that pie in thirds.
• It yeyfe bixwer ay uynxwer.....He should be drawn and quartered.
• Hia nas se aloyn bi hos yat nixa zojab.....This money is a tenth of what we earned last year.
• Ha dep aloynxwu.....The army would be decimated.
• Ewa asoyni bi ha dityan baksa.....Two percent (=hundredths) of the citizenry got sick.
• Hia tom se anay asoyn ge aga vyel hua tom.....This building is only a hundredth as big as that building.
• Hwut se oyntofa.....That guy is naked.

The fractional adverbs can be used as in these examples:

• Et so aynay dudyefa av eta xeyni.....You will be wholly accountable for your actions.
• Iyt eynay tikabeloka.....She almost (= halfway) threw up.

Pronominalizations like half of it, a third of them:

• Eynas sa fia.....Half of it was good.
• Eynasi sa fua.....Half of them (things) were bad.
• Esa uwa tobi se hua fukyes. Eynati toja.....There were four people in that accident. Half (of them) died.
• Iynati bi yet se vyaka.....A third of you are right.
• Uynati bi yat yantexe.....A quarter of us agree.
• Alo asoyni bi hia dyesi fyunxwa.....Ten percent of these books were ruined.

Multiples

Multiplicative numeric determiners ( = multiples) like double, triple can be formed by adding -on to the respective cardinal numeral if the numeral is monosyllabic, otherwise just -n. These noun forms can be adjectivized with the suffix -a. They can also serve as prefixes on animate nouns, inanimate nouns, and prefixes, as the following chart shows. The prefix ending, -n is often dropped.

Multiplicative Numeric Determiners

CARDINAL NUMERAL	MULTIPLE AS NOUN	...AS ADJECTIVE	...AS ADVERB	...AS PREFIX	...AS VERB-MAKER
o....zero	oon....null	oona....nil		on-....zero-	onxer....cancel, zero out
a....one	aon....single	aona....single	aonay....singly	an-....uni-/mono-	anxer....unify
e....two	eon....twosome, double	eona....double	eonay....doubly	en-....di-/bi-	enxer....double
i....three	ion....threesome, triplet	iona....triple	ionay....triply	in-....tri--	inxer....triple
u....four	uon....quartet	uona....quadruple	uonay....quadruply	un-....quadri-/tetra-	unxer....quadruple
yo....five	yoon....quintet	yoona....quintuple	yoonay....quintuply	yoon-*....quinti-/penta-	yoonxer*....quintuple
ya....six	yaon....sextet	yaona....sextuple	yaonay....sextuply	yaon-*....sexi-/hexa-	yaonxer*....sextuple
alo....ten	alon....decade	alona....decadic	alonay....by a multiple of ten	alon-....deca-	alonxer....multiply by ten
aso....hundred	ason....hundredfold	asona....hundredfold	asonay....by a hundredfold	ason-....hecato-	asonxer....multiply by a hundred

* An extra o is added to these prefixes to avoid ambiguity with yan meaning together and yon meaning apart.

The multiplicative noun dozen is expressed by aleon.

• Aleoni bi pati yizpapa.....Dozens of birds flew by.

By adding the suffix -at to the noun multiple, we get groupings of people. The -na- in some of these words can be omitted, thereby simplifying the words:

• aonat or aot ....solo, single, person

• aonatser of aotser....become single, become a person
• aonawat....singleton

• eonat or eot....duo, pair, twosome, couple

• eotxer....to copulate
• eontajat....twin

• ionat or iot....trio, threesome, trinity

• iotxer....to do a threesome
• Ionatin....Trinitarianism
• iontajati....triplets

• uonat or uot ....quartet, foursome

• uontajat....quadruplet

• yoonat or yoot....quintet, group of five people

• yoontajati....quintuplets
• yoonati....quintets

By adding the suffix -un instead of -on, we get the following:

• aun....unit

• auna....unitary, individual
• aunser....unite
• aunyan....series

• aunyana....serial

• eun....pair

• euna....even, paired, binary
• oleuna....odd, non-binary, uneven, unpaired

• oleunat....odd man out
• eunxer....even out

Some examples where the above multiple determiners and derivatives are used:

• Yat naptyopa be eo(na)ti yez bi ha mep.....We marched in twos (= pairs) down the street.
• Asonati upo bay yat bu hia ovdal.....Hundreds (of people) will come with us to this protest.
• Hia ivxel xwe enjabay.....This celebration happens biennially.
• Iyt se untupokyat.....She is a quadriplegic. (Lit: x 4+limb+loss+person)
• Diwe sagu ha auni.....Please count the units.
• Yet gafisa aronay!....You all have improved a thousandfold!
• Tob se entyoyaba sat.....Man is a bipedal creature.

Note: Sometimes the multiple prefix ending in -on in the numbers below ten is shortened to -n in common words:

• anzyuk....monocycle
• enzyuk....bicycle
• ingun....triangle
• ungun....quadrangle
• yoongon....pentagon
• yaongon....hexagon

Note: The prefixes for penta-/quinti- and hexa-/sext- must keep the -on so as to distinguish them from the prefixes yon....apart and yan....together. This rule does not apply to numbers inside chemical names and formulas (See Coding Chemical Elements).

• yoongona....quintipartite  BUT: yonper....separate, go apart
• yaongun....hexagon  BUT: yanuper....meet, come together

Number Chart

The following chart shows numbers in Mirad as symbols, adjectives, pronouns, prefixes, and verbs:

Number Chart

MULTIPLE					FRACTION
SYMBOL	ADJECTIVE	NOUN	PREFIX1	VERB	SYMBOL	NOUN	PREFIX	VERB
0	owa zero	oon nonentity, null oot nobody	on- zero-	onxer nullify	1/0	oyn zeroth	oyn- nihil-	oynxer anihilate
1	awa one aa first ana single, lone	aon unit aot solo, individual	an- uni-, mono-	anxer unify	1/1	ayn whole	ayn- holo-	aynxer integrate
2	ewa two ea second ena dual ensuana binary	eon double eot duo, pair, couple eontajat twin	en- bi-, di-	enxer double eotxer copulate	1/2	eyn half	eyn- semi-	eyxner halve
3	iwa three ia third insuana ternary	ion triple iot trio, threesome iontajat triplet	in- tri-	inxer triple	1/3	iyn third	iyn- terci-	iynxer split into three
4	uwa four ua fourth	uon quadruple uot quartet, foursome uontajat quadruplet	un- tetra-	unxer quadruple	1/4	uyn fourth uynjab quarter	uyn- quadri-	uynxer quarter
5	yowa five yoa fifth	yoon quintuple yoot quintet yoontajat quintuplet	yoon-2 penta-	yoonxer quintuple	1/5	yoyn fifth	yoyn- quint-	yoynxer cut in fifths
6	yawa six yaa sixth	yaon sextuple yaot sextet yaontajat sextuplet	yaon-3 hecto-	yaonxer sextuple	1/6	yayn sixth	yayn- hexi-	yaynxer cut in sixths
7	yewa seven yea seventh	yeon septuple yeot septet yeontajat septuplet yejub week	yen- hepto-	yenxer mult seven	1/7	yeyn seventh	yeyn- hepti-	yeyxner cut in sevenths
8	yiwa eight yia eighth	yion octuple yiot octet yiontajat octuplet	yin- octo-	yinxer mult eight	1/8	yiyn eighth	yiyn- octi-	yiynxer cut in eighths
9	yuwa nine yua ninth	yuon nonuple yuot set of nine yuontajat nonuplet	yun- nona-	yunxer mult nine	1/9	yuyn nineth	yuyn- novi-	yuynxer cut in ninths
10	alo ten aloa tenth alosuana decimal	alon tenfold alojab...decade	alon- deca-	alonxer increase by a factor of ten	1/10	aloyn tenth	aloyn- deci-	aloynxer decimate
100 104	aso hundred asoa hundredth	ason hundredfold asojab century	ason- heca-	asonxer increase a hundredfold	1/100 10-2	asoyn hundredth percentage cent	asoy- centi-	asoynxer divide by a hundred
1,000 103	aro thousand aroa thousanth	aron thousandfold arojab millennium	aron- kilo-	aronxer divide by a thousand	1/1000 10-3	aroyn thousandth	aroy- milli-	aroynxer
1,000,000 106	amlo million amloa millionth	amlon millionfold	amlon- mega	amlonxer multiply by a million	10-6	amloyn millionth goryan	amloyn- micro-	amloynxer divide by a million
109	amro billion amroa billionth	amron billionfold	amron- giga-	amronxer multiply by a billion	10-9	amroyn- nano-	amroynxer divide by a billion
1012	garale3 trillion garalea trillianth	garalen trillionfold	garalen- tera		10-12	goralen- pico-	goralen trillionth
1015	garalyo quadrillion garalyoa quadrillionth	garalyon quadrillionfold	garalyon- peta-		10-15	garalyon- femto-	goralyon quadrillionth
1018	garalyi quintillion garlyia quintillionth	garalyin quintillionfold	garalyin- exa-		10-18	goralyin- atto-	goralyin quintillianth
1021	garela sextillion garelaa sextillionth	garelan sextillionfold	garelan- zetta-		10-21	gorelan- zepto-	gorelan sextillionth
1024	garele septillion garelea septillionth	garelen eptillionfold	garelen- yotta-		10-24	gorelen- yocto-	gorelen septillionth
1027	garelye octillion garelyea octillionth	garelyen ctillionfold	garelyen- ronna-		10-27	gorelyen- ronto-	gorelyen octillionth
1030	garilo nonillion gariloa nonillionth	garilon nonillionfold	garilon- quetta-		10-30	gorilon- quecto-	gorilon nonillionth

• Note 1: Sometimes the final -n on the numeric prefix is dropped, especially as an ordinal vowel in scalar words, eg. anapa
  first, atistam
  elementary school.
• Note 2: An extra o is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from yon-
  dis-, apart
• Note 3: An extra o is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from yan-
  con-, together
• Note 4: Garale is short for alo gar ale
  ten to-the-power-of 12. By the same token, gorale is short for alo gor ale
  ten to-the-power-of-minus 12

Metric Units

Mirad uses the International System of Units (SI) for rendering measurement units. These symbols are pronounced as if you were spelling each letter out (see the alphabet. Bear in mind that majuscules (uppercase letters are prefaced with the word ag- (big). Similarly, Greek letters are rendered by their Greek names (ω = omega, Ω = Omega). The measurement unit names are followed by nak (measurement unit).

SI base units

ENGLISH UNIT NAME	SYMBOLIC ABBREVIATION	QUANTITY UNIT	MIRAD PRONUNCIATION
second	s	time	sonak
meter	m	length	minak
kilogram	kg	mass	kigenak
ampere	A	electric current	aganak
kelvin	K	thermodynamic temperature	agkinak
Mole	mol	amount of substance	miolinak
candela	cd	luminous intensity	cadanak

Here are SI derived units with special names and symbols:

SI derived units with special names and symbols

ENGLISH NAME	SYMBOLIC WRITTEN ABBREVIATION	QUANTITY UNIT	MIRAD PRONUNCIATION
radian	rad	plane angle	roadanak
steradian	sr	solid angle	soronak
hertz	Hz	frequency	aghezunak
newton	N	force, weight	agninak
pascal	Pa	pressure, stress	agpoanak
joule	J	energy	agjinak
watt	W	power	agwunak
coulomb	C	electric charge	agcanak
volt	V	electrical potential difference	agvunak
farad	F	capacitance	agfenak
ohm	Ω	electrical resistance	Omeganak
Siemens	S	electrical conductance	agsonak
Weber	Wb	magnetic flux	agwubanak
tesla	T	magnetic flux density	agtonak
henry	H	inductance	aghenak
degree Celsius	°C	temperature	nogagcanak
lumen	lm	luminous flux	liminak
lux	lx	illuminance	lixuak
becquerel	Bq	radioactivity	agbakonak
gray	Gy	absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation)	aggeyunak
sievert	Sv	equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation)	agsovunak
katal	kat	catalytic activity	kiatonak
byte	b	8 bits of information	banak

Also, here are some non-SI units that are very convenient and acceptable:

Convenient non-SI units

ENGLISH NAME	SYMBOLIC WRITTEN ABBREVIATION	QUANTITY UNIT	MIRAD PRONUNCIATION
litre	L	volume	aglonak or litr(i)
hectare	ha	area	heanak or hektar(i)
ton	t	area	tonak or ton(i)
decibel	dB	loudness	daagbanak or decibel(i)
fathom	ftm	depth of water	fetominak

The following chart shows how in Mirad to pronounce coherent derived unit formulae in terms of base units. Note that the backslash means per or divided by and is pronounced gol. The symbol x means times and is pronounced gal. The superscript number is a power and is pronounced gar plus the number (with -wa, if a unit number). The negative superscript number is pronounced gor plus the number (again, with -wa if a unit number). See Arithmetical Expressions for further information on these terms.

Examples of coherent derived units in terms of base units

NAME	SYMBOLIC FORMULA	DERIVED QUANTITY	TYPICAL SYMBOL	MIRAD PRONUNCIATION
square meter	m2	area	A	minak-gar-ewa
cubic meter	m3	volume	V	minak-gar-iwa
meter per second	m/s	speed, velocity	v	minak-gol-sonak
meter per second squared	m/s2	acceleration	a	minak-gol-sonak-gar-ewa
reciprocal meter	m−1	wavenumber	σ, ṽ	minak-gor-awa
		vergence (optics)	V, 1/f
kilogram per cubic meter	kg/m3	density	ρ	kigenak-gol-minak-gar-iwa
kilogram per square meter	kg/m2	surface density	ρA	kigenak-gol-minak-gar-ewa
cubic meter per kilogram	m3/kg	specific volume	v	minak-gar-iwa-gol-kinak-ge
ampere per square meter	A/m2	current density	j	aganak-gol-minak-gar-ewa
ampere per meter	A/m	magnetic field strength	H	aganak-gol-minak
mole per cubic meter	mol/m3	concentration	c	minolinak-gol-minak-gar-iwa
kilogram per cubic meter	kg/m3	mass concentration	ρ, γ	kinak-ge-gol-minak-gar-iwa
candela per square meter	cd/m2	luminance	Lv	canak-da-gol-minak-gar-ewa

The SI has a whole list of prefixes that act as multipliers (macro) or dividers (micro) of the above and other measurement units. For example, a kilometer is a meter times a 1,000 (macro unit), whereas a millimeter is a meter divided by a 1,000 (micro unit). Banak means byte, so garale-banak is terabyte. This breaks down to 10¹² bytes. Here is a table showing the Mirad macro and micro prefixes:

Scalar Metrics

MACRO				MICRO
BASE 10	US/UK NAME	MIRAD PREFIX....SI PREFIX	SI SYMBOL	BASE 10	(US/UK NAME)	MIRAD PREFIX....SI PREFIX	SI SYMBOL
1	one	an- *... mono-, uni-		1/1	whole	ayn-....holo-, uni-
2	two	en-....bi-		1/2	half	eyn-....demi-, di-
3	three	in-....tri-		1/3	third	iyn-....terci-
4	four	un-....tetra-		1/4	fourth	uyn-....quadri-
5	five	yoon- *....penta-		1/5	fifth	yoyn....quinti-
6	six	yaon-....hexa-		1/6	sixth	yayn....sexti-
7	seven	yeon-....hepta-		1/7	seventh	yeyn....septi-
8	eight	yion....octo-		1/8	eighth	yiyn....octi-
9	nine	yuon....nona-		1/9	ninth	yuyn....novi-
10	ten	alon-....deca-	da	1/10	tenth	aloy-....deci-	d
102	hundred	aso-....hecto- **	h	10-2	hundredth	asoy-....centi-	c
103	thousand	amso-....kilo-	k	10-3	thousandth)	amsoy-....milli-	m
106	million	amlo-....mega-	M	10-6	millionth	amloy-....micro-	r
109	billion /milliard	amro-....giga-	G	10-9	billionth/ milliardth	amroy-....nano-	n
1012	trillion /billion	garale-....tera-	T	10-12	trillionth / billionth)	gorale-....pico-	p
1015	quadrillion)/ billiard	garalyo-....peta-	P	10-15	quadrillionth) / billiardth	goralyo-....femto-	f
1018	quintillion / trillion	garalyu-....exa-	E	10-18	quintillionth)/ trillionth	goralyu....atto-	a
1021	sextillion)/ trilliard	garela-....zetta-	Z	10-21	sextillionth / trilliardth	gorela....zepto-	z
1024	septillion)/ quadrillion	garelu-....yotta-	Y	10-27	septillionth / quadrillionth	gorelu....yocto-	y

*Note: The -n or -on can sometimes be omitted in macro-prefixation, especially where there is no ambiguity. The -n (but NOT the -yn) in the micro prefixes can also sometimes be omitted.

**Note: The gar (to a plus power) and gor (to a minus power) forms are alternatives for the numeric prefixes beyond 100. For example, billion (10⁹) could be expressed as garyu-(ten) to the 9th power, while billionth could be expressed by goryu ((ten) to the minus 9th power). The prefix garya- is composed of the positive exponential operator gar (to the power of), followed by the number 6. The prefix gorale- is composed of the negative exponential operator gor (to the root of), followed by the number 12.

The macro and micro values can also be represented with abbreviated symbols, which can be pronounced in Mirad as spelled out alphabetics. Greek letter are rendered by their names in Greek. Upper case equivalents are preceded with ag-. Here is a table showing grams:

Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols

MACRO		MICRO
SYMBOL (EXPANSION)	MIRAD PRONUNCIATION	SYMBOL (EXPANSION)	MIRAD PRONUNCIATION
dag (decagram)	daagenak	(decigram)	dagenak
hg (hectogram)	hegenak	cg (centigram)	cagenak
kg (kilogram)	kogenak	mg (milligram)	migenak
Mg (macrogram)	agmigenak	μg (microgram)	mugenak
Gg (gigagram)	aggegenak	ng (nanogram)	nigenak
Tg (teragram)	agtogenak	pg (picagram)	pogenak
Pg ( petagram)	agpogenak	fg (femtogram)	fegenak
Eg (exagram)	agegenak	ag (attogram)	agenak
Zg (zettagram)	agzegenak	zg (zeptogram)	zegenak
Yg (yottagram)	agyugenak	yg (yoctogram)	yugenak

The squared and cubed representations of the above are followed by gar e (squared) and gar i (cubed), respectively:

• 10 km²....(pronounced as:) alo kominaki gar e
• 12 mm³....(pronounced as:) ale miminaki gar i

Expressing Frequency

There are two ways to form determiners of frequency:

• Using jod(i) meaning occasion(s), instance(s), time(s), or
• Using xag meaning frequency

Here is a chart showing the most common frequency determiners:

Frequentative Determiners

"JOD" METHOD	"XAG" METHOD	MEANING
duhogla jodi?	duhoxag?	how often?, how many times?
hogla jodi	hoxag	how often, how frequently
hagla jodi	haxag	the frequency
hegla jodi	hexag	sometimes, on some occasions
higla jodi	hixag	this often, this many times
hugla jodi	huxag	that often, that many times, so many times
huugla jodi	huuxag	so often, so many times
hyogla jodi	hyoxag	never
hyagla jodi	hyaxag	always, at all times
hyegla jodi	hyexag	any number of times, however often
hyigla jodi	hyixag	as often, the same number of times
hyugla jodi	hyuxag	not as often, some other number of times
ga jodi	gaxag (vyel)	more often (than)
ge jodi	gexag (vyel)	as many times (as), as often (as)
go jodi	goxag (vyel)	less often (than)
gla jodi	glaxag	many times, often
gle jodi	glexag	quite a few times, quite often
glo jodi	gloxag	not so many times, seldom
gra jodi	graxag	too often
gre jodi	grexag	often enough
gro jodi	groxag	too seldom
gwa jodi	gwaxag	as often as possible, most often, most times
gwe jodi	gwexag	an average number of times
gwo jodi	gwoxag	least often, as seldom as possible
owa jod	oxag	never, at no time, zero times
awa jod	axag	once, one time
awa ga jod	ga axag	again, once more
ewa jodi	exag	twice, two times
iwa jodi	ixag	thrice, three times
alo jodi	aloxag	ten times

Examples:

• Duhoxag et pe ha tayegoblam?....How often do you go to the barber shop?
• Duhogla jodi et akaye hia ekun?....How many times have you won this game?
• At teataye hua dyezun iwa ey uwa jodi.....I have seen that film three or four times.
• At teataye is huugla jodi (or: huuxag) van at bokseye.....I have seen it so many times that I am getting sick.
• Hus xwaye gaxag vyel et te.....That has happened more often than you know.

Mathematical Expressions

Mathematical vocabulary is based mostly on deriviatives of the degree word ga....more.

Chart of Mathmatical Components

The following chart shows mathematical operator verbs and derived terms:

Arthmetic Expressions

VERB	OPERATION	PATIENT	SUBJECT	OPERATOR	SIGN	RESULT
gaber add	gaben addition	gabwas addend, summand	gabus augend	gab plus +	gabsiyn plus sign	gabix sum
galer multiply	galen multiplication	galwas multiplicand	galus multiplier factor	gal times x	galsiyn times sign	galix product
garer raise to the power of	garen exponentiation	garwas base	garus exponent	gar raised to the power of	garsiyn exponent sign	garix power
gazer logarithmize	gazen logarithmization	gazwas base	gazus antilogarithm	gaz log		gazix logarithm
gober subtract	goben subtraction	gobwas subtrahend	gobus minuend	gob minus -	gobsiyn minus sign	gobix difference
goler divide	golen division fraction	golwas dividend numerator	golus divisor denominator	gol divided by ÷	golsiyn division sign	golix quotient
gorer derive the nth root of	goren root extraction	gorwas radicand	gorus degree	gor the nth root of √	gorsiyn radical sign	gorix root
gexer equal	gexen equation	gexwas thing being equated	gexus equator	ge equal to =	gesiyn equal sign	gexix equation solution

How to Verbalize Math Expressions

• 1 + 1 = 2.....A gab a gese e.
• 3 - 1 = 2.....I gob a gese e.
• 2 x 4 = 8.....E gal u gese yi.
• 10 % 2 = 5.....Alo gol e gese yu.
• 5² = 25.....Yo gar e gese elyu.
• 2³ = 8.....E gar i gese yi.
• 4 √2 = 2 = 2.....U gor e gese e.
• log₁₀ 1000 = 3.....Aro gaz alo gese i.

Note 1: gese (equals) can be substituted with se (is), eg.:

• E gab e se u.....Two plus two is four.

Note 2: If numbers are used as numeric adjectives, the units take the suffix -wa, eg.:

• Ewa lafebi gab awa afeb gese vavol.....Two oranges plus one apple equals a salad.

Examples of mathematical expressions:

• E gab e gese u.....Two plus two equals four.
• E gal i gese ya.....Two times three equals six.
• I gar e gese yu.....Three to the second power equals nine.
• E gob e gese o.....Two minus two equals zero.
• Yu gol i gese i.....Nine divided by three equals three.
• Yu gor i gese i.....Nine cubed equals three.
• Aso gor e gese alo.....One hundred squared equals ten.
• Aro gaz alo gese i.....Log₁₀(1000) = 3. (= Logarithm of a thousand to base ten equals three)

Decimal Expressions

Decimal expressions like 2.5 use the word nod....point as in English.

• Hia bavol kyinse ga vyel 10.8 (alo nod yiwa) kigenaki.....This tomato weighs more than 10.8 (ten point eight) kilograms.

Calendar and Time Expressions

The word for calendar is judar. The sections below explain how calendar expressions are formed and used:

Basic Calendar Units

Time is divided using the following basic terms:

Calendar Units

MIRAD	ENGLISH
job	time
jab	year
jeb	season
jib	month
jub	day
jwob*	hour
jwab*	minute
jweb*	second

• Note: These would ordinarily be jyob, jyab, and jyeb respectively, but the w glide is much easier to pronounce after the letter j, and is therefore substituted.

Other Calendar Units

Other calendar units are formed through the agglutination of numerical stubs to some of the time units above:

Other Calendar Units

MIRAD	ENGLISH	NUMERICAL FORMULA
rojab	millenium	year x 1,000
sojab	century	year x 100
lojab	decade	year x 10
eynjab	half year	year x 1/2
uynjab	quarter	year x 1/4
yajib	semester	month x 6
yejub	week	day x 7
yejubuj	weekend	day x 7 end
eynjwob	half hour	hour x 1/2

This, next, last, etc. are expressed as follows:

Day Pointers

MIRAD	ENGLISH
hijub hia yejub hijab	today this week this year
zojub zoyejub zajab	yesterday last week last year
zajub zayejub zajab	tomorrow next week next year
hujub huyejub hujab	that day that week that year
jazojub ja ewa yejubi jazojab	the day before yesterday two weeks ago the year before last
jozajub jo ewa yejubi jozajab	the day after tomorrow two weeks from now the year after next
Duhajub?	Which day?
hyajub	every day
hyejub	any day
hejub	someday
hejubi	some days

Seasons of the Year

Seasons of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for season jeb:

Seasons of the Year

MIRAD	ENGLISH
jeab	spring
jeeb	summer
jeib	autumn, Fall
jeub	winter

Examples of usage:

• be jeab....in spring
• ja jeeb....before summer
• ju jeib....until autumn
• ji jeub....since winter
• je ha jeb....during the season
• ub ha uj bi jeeb....toward the end of summer
• eb jeab ay jeeb....between spring and summer
• jeeba gemoj....vernal equinox
• jeiba fayebi....autumn leaves
• jeba til....seasonal drink
• jeubyena jebmalyen....wintry climate
• jeabyena malyen....spring-like weather
• jeuben....hibernation
• hijeab....this season
• zajeab....next season
• zojeab....last season
• hyajeab....every season

Months of the Year

Months of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for month jib:

Months of the Year

MIRAD	ENGLISH
jiab	January
jieb	February
jiib	March
jiub	April
jiyob	May
jiyab	June
jiyeb	July
jiyib	August
jiyub	September
jilob	October
jilab	November
jileb	December

Some expressions using the months:

• be jilob....in October
• ja jiyab....before June
• lojo zajiyeb....by next July (lojo = not after)
• hijib....this month
• zojib....last month
• zajib....next month
• bi-jib-bu-jiba jobnis....month-to-month rent
• jibay....monthly
• jibi joy....months later
• jiba sindryen....monthly magazine
• hujiba jobnis....that month's rent
• hya ionjib....every trimester
• jiber....menstruate
• byi zojilob....since last October
• ub zejib....toward mid-month

Days of the Week

Days of the week are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for day jub:

Days of the Week

MIRAD	ENGLISH
juab	Monday
jueb	Tuesday
juib	Wednesday
juub	Thursday
juyob	Friday
juyab	Saturday
juyeb	Sunday

Here are some common terms relating to days of the week:

Day Expressions

MIRAD	ENGLISH
Duhojub?	Which day?
hojub hu...	the day that...
hejub	someday
hijub	today
hujub	that day
hyijub	(on) the same day
hyajub	every day
hyejub	any day
zajub	yesterday
zojub	tomorrow
ha jajub be ha jana jub	the day before, (on) the previous day
ha jojub be ha jona jub	the day before, (on) the previous day
jazojub	the day before yesterday
jozajub	the day after tomorrow
hya ea jub	every other/second day
hyajub boy juyeb	every day except Sunday
yejub	week
hiyejeb	this week
yejubuj	weekend
yexjub (or) zeyejub	weekday
enyejuba(y)	bi-weekly
zoyejub	last week

Examples of Usage:

• (be) juyob....on Friday
• ju juib....until Wednesday
• ji zojub....since yesterday
• lojo jubuj....by [Lit: not after] day's end
• jo zajub....after tomorrow
• je ha jub....during the day
• bi juab bu juub....from Monday to Friday
• yejubuja ponpop....a weekend getaway

Parts of the Day

Here are the principal parts of a day:

Parts of the Day

DAYTIME	NIGHTTIME
maj....daytime, day	moj....nighttime, night
bi maj....A.M.	bi moj....P.M.
jamajij....pre-dawn	jamojij....pre-dusk
majij....daybreak, dawn	mojij....dusk
amaryap....sunrise, sunup	amaryop....sunset, sundown
jwamaj....morning zajwamaj....tomorrow morning hijwamaj....this morning zojwamaj....yesterday morning hujwamaj....that morning hyajwamaj....every morning	jwamoj....evening zajwamoj....tomorrow evening hijwamoj....this evening zojwamoj....yesterday evening hujwamoj....that evening hyajwamoj....every evening
zemaj....noon	zemoj....midnight
jozemaj....afternoon	jozemoj....after midnight
majuj....day's end	jwomoj....late night

• Examples of Usage:

• At tijpa ja majij.....I woke up before dawn.
• At iyfe tuyjer be ha jwoa jozemaj.....I like to nap in the late afternoon.
• It yexe bi amaryap bu amaryop.....He works from sunup to sundown.
• Be gwa jwamoji, at teaxe sinibar.....Most evenings, I watch television.

Expressing Dates

The following is a how a date (jud) is normally expressed:

• be juab, 11 jieb 2018 joK.....on Monday, February 11th, 1918 A.D.

A date like 2018 can be expressed as twenty eighteen (elo alyi) or two thousand eighteen (ero alyi).

The day 11 in the above expression is pronounced ala.

The acronym for B.C. is jaK, short for ja Krist (before Christ).

The acronym for the de-Christianized "BCE", meaning Before the Common/Current Era is expressed in Mirad with jaEJ (ja ha Eja Joeb).

The acronym for A.D. is joK, short for jo Krist (after Christ).

The acronym for the de-Christianized C.E. is EJ, shoft for ha Eja Joeb (the Current Era).

Other date expressions follow:

• be ha 1800 jabi (alyi aso jabi)....In the 1800's (eighteen hundreds)
• ja ha 20a (eloa) asojab....before the 20th (twentieth) century
• eb 1920 (yulo elo) ay 2001 (emso awa)....between 1920 (nineteen twenty) and (two thousand one)
• hyaje hua alojab....throughout that decade
• At yexa hum je gla jabi.....I worked there for [Lit: during] many years.
• Ujbu his lojo jiyab.....Finish this by [Lit: not after] May.
• Iyt so him ub ha uj bi 2 (ewa) jiab.....She will be here toward the end of January 2nd.
• At taja je ha Tejika Eloni.....I was born in the Roaring Twenties.

Telling Time

Clock time expressions use mostly the word jwob (hour) or jwobi (hours).

Times of the day are expressed in the 24-hour European system, or what might be called by Americans "military clock time." So, 3PM in U.S. parlance should be expressed in Mirad as 15 hours (ulo jwobi), which is the same as 15:00 or 15 hundred hours.

The usual time-of-day question is Se duhojwob?....What time is it? [Lit: is what-hour?]

The typical answer is in the format Se alo (jwobi) yuwa. (Lit: (It) is ten hours five). The use of jwobi is optional, but if jwobi is modified by awa....one, then the singular form jwob is used.

Here are some typical answers:

• Se awa jwob.....It is one o'clock AM [Lit: It is one hour.]
• Se ewa jwobi.....It is two o'clock AM [Lit: It is two hours.]
• Se ale jwobi.....It is twelve o'clock AM.
• Se alyu jwobi elo.....It is 15:30 (3:30 PM).
• Se eli jwobi ali.....It is 23:13 (11:13 PM).
• Se elu jwobi.....It is 24:00 (12 PM).

The words jwob and jwobi can be abbreviated as j..

• be elo j.....At 8:00 PM

The designation AM and PM can be used but are not necessary in the 24-hour clock system:

• bi maj....(AM)
• bi moj.... (PM)

• Se vyavay 15:10 (= alu alo).....It is exactly 7:10 P.M..  [Lit: It is exactly fifteen ten.]
• Et sa jwoa bey alo jwabi.....You were late by 10 minutes.  [Lit: You were late by ten minutes.]
• Has ijo yuz 21:30 (= ela jwobi ilo).....It will begin around 10:30 PM.
• Puu him lojo jwoa vyel 15:00 j.....Get here no later than 3 PM.
• Ha yuzpar puo hum yeb 10 jwabi.....The bus will arrive there within 10 minutes.
• Ha jwobar izeade¹ 17:00.....The clock says [Lit. indicates] 5 PM.
• Yit pua be 3 j. be ha nod.....They arrived at 3 on the dot.

Note 1: izeade (indicates) can be substituted with de (says).

Note the following clock time idioms:

Clock Idioms

MIRAD	ENGLISH
jwa	early
jwe	on time
jwo	late
Se vyavay elo j.	It is exactly 8 PM.
yub bi zemaj or yuz bi zemaj.	around noon
ub zemoj	toward midnight
yeb bi jwebi	within seconds
alo jwabi ja hij	ten minutes ago [= before now]
lojo 3 j.	no later than / by 3 o'clock AM.
jwobay	hourly / by the hour / on the hour
Hia pop efxe 2 1/2 (= ewa gab eyn) jwobi.	This trip takes (Lit: necessitates) 2 1/2 hours.
ju awa jwob bi hij	until one hour from now
ji zojub be 10a j.	since yesterday at 10 o'clock.
je ha jana 12 jwabi	for/during/over the last 12 minutes
ja ojo 10 j.	before / by 10 AM.
lojo 10 jwobi.	by / in / within 10 hours.
jo 10 j.	after 10 o'clock AM.
At saye him ji ewa jwobi.	I have been here for [= since] two hours.

Expressing Age

Many expressions relating to age are built on the Mirad word for age: jag.

The typical question is:

• Et se duhojaga?....How old are you? (Lit. what-aged)

A typical answer is:

• At se eli (jabi) (jaga).....I am twenty-three (years old).

The word jaga can be left understood, as well as the word jabi....years:

• At se ilo.....I am thirty.

Here is a list of important age expressions and categories:

• duhojaga?....how old?
• hojoga....of which age
• hajaga....of the age
• hejaga....of some age
• hijaga....this old
• hujaga....that old
• huujaga....so old
• hyajaga....of every age
• hyejaga....of any age
• hyijaga / gejaga....of the same age, as old
• hyujaga / ogejaga....of a different age
• zejaga .... middle-aged
• jaga....old
• jayga....oldish
• joga....young
• joyga .... youngish
• gle jaga....rather old, oldish
• gla jaga....very old
• gra jaga....too old, super-aged
• gro jaga....under-aged, minor
• ge jaga....as old, of the same age
• awa (jab) jaga....one year old
• ewa (jabi) jaga....two years old
• alo (jabi) jaga....ten years old
• ga jaga vyel et....older than you
• ga joga vyel at....younger than me
• ge joga vyel iyt....as young as her
• ha gwa jagat bi ata tidetyan....the youngest of my siblings
• gajagat .... an elder
• grojagat....a minor
• alojagat....a ten-year-old
• aloynjagat....a teenager
• jagat .... old person, elder, senior
• jagwat .... old man
• jagayt .... old woman
• jogat....a youth
• jogwat....a boy
• jogayt....a girl
• grejat....an adult, someone of age
• jagseat....an adolescent
• jagsyat/agsyat....a grownup
• yilojagat....an octogenarian
• asojagat....a centenarian
• tud .... child, offspring
• twud .... male child, son
• tuyd .... female child, daughter
• tudet .... baby, infant
• tobet .... youth, young person
• twobet .... boy, young man
• toybet .... girl, young woman, maiden

Some other examples of usage:

• Et jagseye fi.....You are aging well.
• At voy jogseye hyegla.....I am not getting any younger.
• His se taam av ha jagati.....This is a home for the elderly.
• Gawaku eta jogan!....Regain your youth!
• At se ga jaga vyel ha yazmeli.....I am older than the hills.
• Teaxu ata gwa joga tud.....Look at my youngest child.
• Yat ife yata awajagat.....We love our one-year-old.
• Jagseatan se yika joob bi tej.....Adolescence is a difficult period of life.
• Agsu!....Grow up!

Note the difference:

• agaser....to get bigger
• agser....to grow

Currency Nomenclature

The ISO abbreviation for the currency expressions from various countries of the world are used to form the Mirad equivalents. The lowercase ISO code abbreviation for a particular country's denomination is spelled out in Mirad alphabetics and then the letter n is suffixed (mnemonic for nas....money). Then, since a monetary unit can be considered a proper noun, the first letter is capitalized, eg.:

• The ISO code abbreviation for "U.S. dollar" is "USD".
• Lowercase is "usd"
• Spelled out in Mirad alphabetics is u so da.
• This, with n suffixed, results in usodan.
• Finally, the first letter is capitalized, giving Usodan.
• Pluralized, Usodan becomes Usodani (= U.S. dollars).

• The Euro is therefore Euron.
• The Thai baht is Toheban.
• The Russian ruble is Rouban.

The ISO codes can be found at List of circulating currencies. A portion of that file is replicated here:

Currencies

English Currency Name	Currency symbol	ISO code	Mirad Name
Jordanian dinar	JD	JOD	Jiodan
Moroccan dirham	DH	MAD	Miadan
Australian dollar	$	AUD	Audan
Bitcoin	₿	(BTK?)	Batokin
Brunei dollar	$	BND	Banidan
Eastern Caribbean dollar	$	XCD	Xucadan
Hong Kong dollar	$	HKD	Hekidan
New Zealand dollar	$	NZD	Nizudan
Singapore dollar	$	SGD	Sogedan
United States dollar	$	USD	Usodan
Armenian dram	֏	AMD	Amidan
Euro	€	EUR	Euron
Central African CFA franc	Fr	XAF	Xuafen
CFP franc	Fr	XPF	Xupofen
Swiss franc	Fr	CFN	Cufenin
West African CFA franc	Fr	XOF	Xuofen
Netherlands Antillean guilder	ƒ	ANG	Anigen
Danish krone	kr	DKK	Dakikin
Turkish lira	₺	TRY	Toroyun
Mauritanian ouguiya	UM	MRU	Miroun
Sterling	£	GBP	Gebapon
Saint Helena pound	£	SHP	Sohepon
South African rand	R	ZAR	Zuaron
Russian rouble	₽	RUB	Rouban
Indian rupee	₹	INR	Iniron
Israeli new shekel	₪	ILS	Ilison

The hundredth fractional unit for most currencies can be converted into Mirad by appending the word -asoyn to the end of the Mirad name of the currency.

For example:

• The American cent is Usodan-asoyn.
• The Euro cent is Euron-asoyn.
• The British penny is Gebapon-asoyn.

In context, all of the above can be abbreviated to asoyn.

The symbol used for each currency can also be taken from the Wikipedia table referenced above. The symbol precedes the number and a comma is used for the thousand breaker and a period is used for the decimal breaker. For example:

• Five point six Euros ==> Yowa nod yawa Euroni ==> €5.6
• Two thousand nine dollars ==> Emro yuwa Usodani ==> $2,009

Note: : The bitcoin has no ISO code, so it is arbitrarily translated into Mirad as Batokin (for BTK). Its billionth fractional unit is called a satoshi and is translated into Mirad as Batokin-amroyn.

Other monetary vocabulary:

• nas....money

• nasa....monetary
• nasyen....currency
• nases....change
• nasmug....coin
• syagnas....cash

• syagnasuer....to cash

• ejnux....debit, cash
• ojnux....credit
• nasyef....debt
• ojbier....to borrow
• ojbuer....to lend
• drefnas....paper money
• nasdrev....bill, note, banknote

• alo Usodan nasdrev....ten dollar bill

• nax....price
• nayx....cost
• namper....to shop
• nusbier....to buy
• nisbuer....to sell
• nun....merchandise, product
• nuer....to supply
• nuxer....to pay
• nyuxer....to deliver
• nier....to demand
• nixer....to earn
• nyixer....to order
• nexer....to save
• nyexer....to stock
• noxer....to spend
• nyoxer....to waste
• kyaxler nas....convert money
• nasokrer....go bankrupt
• nasam....bank
• nuien....trade
• nuiem....market
• nam....store

Pronoun Categories

Pronouns are words that substitute for explicit nouns. For example, the pronoun I stands for the person standing at this place. The pronoun this stands for the thing or person nearest. The pronoun big one stands for a person or thing of some stature.

In this grammar, pronouns are divided into three categories:

• personal pronouns
• deictic determiners
• deadjectival pronouns

Deictic determiners like who?, this, that, such a, all, anything are discussed in a later chapter called Determiners.

Deadjectival pronouns are discussed in the chapter on Adjectives, because they are basically pronouns built from an adjective or adjective stem, such as:

• fia....good
• fiat....a good guy
• fias....a good thing
• ha gwa fiasi....the best ones

This chapter discusses personal pronouns.

Personal Pronouns

In Mirad, personal pronouns can be classified by the following features:

• person

• 1st
• 2nd
• 1st & 2nd hybrid
• 3rd

• specificity

• person-specific
• generic
• reciprocal
• reflexive

• gender

• gender-neutral
• masculine
• feminine

• case

• subject
• direct object
• indirect object

• animacy

• animate
• inanimate

• other

• emphatic
• possessive

The chart below shows the principal personal pronouns, but does not include hybrid, reciprocal, emphatic, and possessive forms.

Personal Pronouns

PERSON	TYPE	ANIMACY	GENDER	SINGULAR	PLURAL
1st	Specific	Animate	Neutral	at....I, me	yat....we, us
2nd				et....you	yet....you, you all
3rd				it....he, she, him, her	yit....they, them
			Masculine	wit....he, him
			Feminine	iyt....she, her
		Inanimate	Neutral	is....it	yis....they, them
	Generic	Animate		ot....one, they	yot....people
	Reflexive			ut....self	yut....selves

Animacy

If a Mirad pronoun ends in -t, the pronoun is animate. If the pronoun ends in -s, the pronoun is inanimate.

The Mirad 3rd person specific animate pronouns it (he/she), iyt (she), wit (he), and yit can refer to any animate or pseudo-animate creatures such as animals, babies, dolls, angels, gods, or monsters. However, Mirad it cannot refer to non-animate things such as tables, ideas, abstractions, plants, etc. Instead, the 3rd person inanimate pronoun is (singular) or yis (plural) is used. A deictic determiner (this/that, these/those) can also be used in such cases, as discussed in the chapter on Determiners, eg.:

• Eta dom se via. At iyfe is.....You house is beautiful. I like it.
• Ata dyun se Pierre. Is se Feroda.....My name is Pierre. It's French.
• Tej se vira, oy is uje gra ig.....Life is wonderful, but it ends too soon.
• Teaxu hua amaryop. Has se via.....Look at that sunset. It (=the thing) is beautiful. In this case, is and the determiner has are synonymous.

If the English word they or them refers to inanimate objects, concepts, or abstractions, then the Mirad 3rd person inanimate plural pronoun isi is used, eg.:

• At ujba dyeer ha dyesi. Isi sa gla fia.....I finished reading the books. They were very good.

Note that the endings -t and -s alternate regularly in the language for things and persons.

Gender

Personal pronouns are gender-neutral, except that the 3rd singular animate pronoun it (he/she) can be made to express gender by prefixing w for masculine or inserting y before the final t for feminine. This is optional and only used where needed to differentiate referents.

• it....he/she/him/her
• iyt....she/her
• wit....he/him
• ita....his/her
• iyta....her
• wita....his
• iut....himself/herself
• iuyt....herself
• wiut....himself
• iuta....his/her own
• iuyta....her own
• wiuta....his own

In rare cases, distinguishing other personal pronouns for gender might be possible:

• wat....I/me, as a male
• eyt....you, a female

Number

All plural personal pronouns begin with y:

• yat....we, us
• yet....you (all)
• yit....they, them (m. or f.)
• yot....people
• yut....themselves

Plural personal pronouns do not express gender.

Case

Personal pronouns in Mirad do not express case with inflected forms such as he vs. him or she vs. her, or they vs. them in English. Rather, the position in the sentence or prepositions do the job.

• Et teate at.....You see me. (subject)
• At teate et.....I see you. (direct object)
• Yat teate yit.....We see them. (subject)
• Yit teaate yat.....They see us. (direct object)
• Du at din.....Tell me a story. (indirect object)
• Buu is bu at.....Give it to me. (indirect object)

Tell me a story. can also be expressed in Mirad as Du din bu at. (Tell a story to me.). Some verbs in Mirad like der (to tell), buer (to give), and uper (to come) have a built-in dative notion and do not require the preposition bu (to) if the object pronoun immediately follows the verb.

Expressing Pronouns with Quantitative Elements

Here are some possible personal pronouns with quantitative elements:

• awat bi yat....one of us
• ewat bi yet....two of you
• Hyaewat bi yit....both of them
• hya yat....we/us all
• anay wet....only you (m.)
• duhot bi yet?....who of you?
• Hyawas se fia.....Each one is good.

The above terms involve deictic determiners, which are discussed in the chapter on Determiners, as well as numbers, discussed in Numbers.

Generic Pronouns

The third person generic pronouns ot and yot are used as in English one and they, people (meaning unspecifed persons), as in the following examples:

• Ot yefe xer ha yakwas.....One must do what is expected.
• Yot de van et vyode hyoj.....They/People say you never lie.

Hybrid Pronouns

Mirad offers two special hybrid 1st & 2nd person pronouns, aet and ayet, which mean, respectively, I and you (dual) and I and you (plural). These are used only where the situation calls for it, eg.:

• Aet yeyfe tadser.....You and I should get married.
• Ayet efe yanbeser.....You people and I need to stick together.

Reflexive Personal Pronouns

Reflexive personal pronouns like English myself, yourself, etc. are formed by postfixing a u just before the final t. Reflexive personal pronouns are invariable for gender. Translating iut as herself depends on the context.

Reflexive Pronouns

PERSON	SINGULAR	PLURAL
1st specific animate	aut....myself	yaut....ourselves
2nd specific animate	eut....yourself	yeut....yourselves
3d specific animate	iut....himself/herself	yiut....themselves
3d specific inanimate	ius....itself	yius....themselves
3d generic animate	out....oneself	yout....people themselves

Reflexive pronouns do not have gendered forms, because they hearken back to personal pronouns which can be gendered.

The above reflexive pronouns can be adjectivized, as in the following:

• auta tam....my own house
• yiuta byen....their own way
• iusa volz....its own color

These in turn can be pronominalized, as in the following:

• At bese yub bi autati.....I stay nearby my own (people).
• Eutas se ga fia.....You own is better.
• Iyt bexe iutasi.....She has her own things.

Examples of personal pronoun usage:

• At yafe teater aut be ha sinzyef.....I can see myself in the mirror.
• Iyt yubteaxa iut.....She examined herself.
• Tru eut!....Know thyself.
• Yat yeyfe tadser.....We should get married.
• Iyt vey tojbo iut.....She may kill herself.
• Ot yefe ifer out.....One must love oneself.
• Yot glaxag voy ife yout.....People often don't love themselves.
• Yet ufe yeut.....You (people) hate yourselves.
• Yet yeyfe yovser yeut.....You people should be ashamed of yourselves.
• Yat ufe yet.....We hate you.
• Upu eker bay yat.....Come play with us.
• At aut voy movie.....I myself do not smoke.

The reflexive pronoun ut....self can sometimes be prefixed (with no variation in gender or number) to a verb to form a reflexive version of that verb, or it can be prefixed to other parts of speech to mean auto-, or self-, eg.:

• tojber....kill → uttojber....commit suicide
• vyixer....clean → utvyixer....wash up, clean oneself, self-clean
• exer....function → utexer....function automatically, self-run
• izber....pilot → utizber....auto-pilot, self-drive
• exut....operator → utexut....automaton
• deber....rule → utdebea....autocratic, self-ruling
• tejdin....biography → uttejdin....autobiography
• fider....praise → utfider....boast   (= self-praise)

Emphatic Personal Pronouns

Emphatic personal pronouns can be formed by following the personal pronoun with the reflexive correspondent, eg.:

Emphatic Personal Pronouns

PERSON	GENDER	SINGULAR	PLURAL
1st	neutral	at aut....I myself, me myself	yat yaut....we ourselves, us ourselves
2nd		et eut....you yourself	yet yeut....you yourselves
3rd		it iut....the person him or herself	yit yiut....they themselves
	masculine	wit iut....he himself	wit wiut....they themselves
	feminine	iyt iut....she herself	yit yiut....they themselves

Note: Gender is not expressed in personal reflexive pronouns. Only the personal specific pronouns express gender, and then only optionally.

Examples:

• At aut voy vatexe Tot.....I myself don't believe in God.
• At jateate yet yeut be hua dezyem.....I foresee you yourselves on that stage.
• Iyt iut voy sa hum.....She herself was not there.

Reciprocal Personal Pronouns

The animate reciprocal personal pronoun....one another, each other is translated with hyuit, which is a melding of hyut (the other person) and hyit (the same person). This is an invariable pronoun and does not express gender or number, but refers to sentient beings.

• Yat yefe ifer hyuit.....We must love one another.

This reciprocal pronoun can be converted to a pronominal determiner by suffixing a, as in hyuita....one another's, mutual, reciprocal:

• Yat tobweti yefe fiyzaxer hyuita fwasi.....We guys must respect one another's wishes.

The inanimate reciprocal personal pronoun....one another, each other is translated with hyuis, which is a hybridization of hyus (the other thing) and hyis (the same thing. This is an invariable pronoun and does not express gender or number, but refers to inanimate objects, concepts, and abstractions.

• Meri glexag yanpyexe hyuis.....Planets sometimes crash into each other.
• Syaagiri dale bay hyuis hyaj.....Computers talk with one another all the time.

This reciprocal pronouns can sometimes be used as a prefix, eg.:

• Yat yefe hyuitifer.....We must love one another.
• Hyuitfiyz....mutual respect
• Hyuisloyexen....mutual destruction.

Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns

Possessive adjectives are derived from pronouns by adding the adjectival ending a to the end of the pronoun, as follows:

• at....I, me    → ata....my
• aut....myself    → auta....my own
• yat....we, us    → yata....our
• yaut....ourselves    → yauta....our own
• iut....himself/herself    → iuta....his/her own
• hyuit....one another    → hyuita....one another's

In turn, these possessive adjectives can be pronominalized with singular and plural forms referring to things. The following chart shows these forms:

Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns

Adjective	Pronoun
	Singular (thing)	Plural (things)
ata....my	atas....mine	atasi....mine
auta....my own	autas....your own	autasi....your own
aeuta....your and my own, our own	aeutas....your and my own, our own	aeutasi....your and mine, our own
eta....your	etas....yours	etasi....yours
euta....your own	eutas....your own	eutasi....your own
ita....his/her	itas....his/hers	itasi....his/hers
iuta....his/her own	iutas....his/hers own	iutasi....his/hers own
wita....his	witas....his	witasi....his
wiuta....his own	wiutas....his own	wiutasi....his own
iyta....her	iytas....hers	iytasi....hers
iuyta....her own	iuytas....her own	iuytasi....her own
hyuita....one another's	hyuitas....one another's	hyuitasi....one another's
isa....its	isas....its	isasi....its
iusa....its own	iusas....its own	iusasi....its own
ota....one's	otas....one's	otasi....one's
outa....one's own	outas....one's own	outasi....one's own
yata....our	yatas....ours	yatasi....ours
yauta....our own	yautas....our own	yautasi....our own
yaeta....your and ours	yaetas....yours and ours	yaetasi....yours and ours
yaeuta....your and our own	yaeutas....yours and our own	yaeutasi....yours and our own
yeta....your	yetas....yours	yetasi....yours
yeuta....your own	yeutas....your own	yeutasi....your own
yita....their	yitas....theirs	yitasi....theirs
yiuta....their own	yiutas....their own	yiutasi....their own
yisa....their	yisas....theirs	yisasi....theirs
yiusa....their own	yiusas....their own	yiusasi....their own
yota....people's	yotas....people's	yotasi....people's
youta....people's own	youtas....people's own	youtasi....people's own

Examples of possessive adjectives and pronouns in use.

• Ata tej se fia.....My life is good.
• Yata twed.......Our father...
• Ota fyadili yeyfe ser dola.....One's prayers should be silent.
• At voy teata ita dyes.....I did not see his/her book.
• At tre wita twed.....I know his father.
• Yat yefe ovmasber yatasi.....We must protect our own [pl. things].
• Etasi naze ga vyel atasi.....Yours are worth more than mine.
• Biku yeutasi.....You guys, mind your own business (= things).
• Yat toybeti fe ayser yauta nig.....We gals want to have our own space.
• Hia vafil bayse iusa toleuz.....This wine has its own taste.

In rare cases, inanimate possessive pronouns like, say, yatasi (our own [things]) can be animated by changing the s to a t, yielding yatati (our own [people]), as in Ha Feromati ife vafil. Yatati gey.....The French people love wine. Ours do too.

Translating various uses of it in English

When translating English it referring to animate creatures such as babies, animals, dolls, angels, ghosts, and monsters, the Mirad third person animate personal pronouns it he/she/it, iyt she, or wit he is used, eg:

• At eke bay ha epet hosav at iyfe it / iyt / wit.....I play with the dog because I like it / her / him.

When translating English it referring to an inanimate object or abstraction, the inanimate personal pronoun is can be used.

• At teasa ha dyezun ay at iyfa is gla.....I saw the movie and I liked it a lot.
• Ha mes sa yija oy at voy ta is.....The door was open but I didn't know it.

Deictic determiners like this and that can also be used. Read more about that in the chapter on Determiners.

If it introduces a non-previously-mentioned abstraction in English or has no antecedent, then the it is left unexpressed in the Mirad equivalent sentence. For example:

• Mamilo.....It will rain. ( = Will rain.)
• Se fia van et upa.....It is good that you came. ( = Is good that you came.)
• Sa via jub bay et.....It was a beautiful day with you. ( = Was a beautiful day...)
• Voy se yuka yaprer hia yazmel.....It is not easy to climb this mountain. ( = Is not easy...)

The Verb Stem

Verbs in Mirad are listed in the dictionary under the present active infinitive (see Mirad Grammar/Verbs#Non-finite Forms), such as yexer....to work. The infinitive minus the er ending is the stem. The stem is used as the base for all other verbal instantiations. The infinitive as listed in the dictionary is usually active in voice, but occasionally a passive infinitive ending in -wer will be lexicalized because it is somehow special, so then, the stem is the infinitive minus the -wer ending. All Mirad verbs are conjugated in the same way and there are no exceptions.

This shows how to determine the stem of a verb listed in the dictionary:

Verb Stems

SIMPLE INFINITIVE	STEM+INFINITIVE ENDING
yexer....to work	yex+er
poser....to (come to a) stop	pos+er
xer....to do	x+er
xwer....to happen, be done (PASSIVE)	x+wer

Verb Formants

The active stem of verbs most often end in one of the following verb formants:

Verb Formats

Verb Formant	Function	Examples
-xer	action or causation	xer....to do, saxer....to create, agaxer....to magnify, yixer....to use
-xler	forceful action	yixler....to employ
-xrer	more forceful action	yixrer....to wear out
-ber	gesture	ber....to put, aber....to apply, yujber....to close
-bler	forceful gesture	yujbler....to lock
-brer	more foreful gesture	yobrer....to knock down
-ser	state or becoming	ser....to be, eser....to exist, aser....to become, zyaser....to widen, become wider
-per	motion or going	per....to go, yaper....to ascend, paper....to fly
-ier	action toward subject	bier....to take, nier....to consume, ifier.'..to enjoy, dier....to ask
-uer	action toward object	buer....to give, nuer....to supply, ifuer....to please, duer....to suggest
-ner	various verbs	uxner....to motivate, axner....to behave
-der	communication	der....to say, vader....to affirm, yevder....to judge
-drer	writing	drer....to write, teedrer....to report, taxdrer....to record
-ter	knowing	ter....to know, tester....to understand, teater....to see
-fer	volition	fer....to want, ifer....to love, ufer....to hate
-ver	some modal verbs	yiver....to have a right to, yuver....to have a duty to
-ker	various verbs	aker....to win, oker....to lose, eker....to play
-jer	opening/closing	ijer....to begin, ujer....to end, tajer....to be born, tojer....to die, yijer....to open
-ler	various verbs	baler....to press, boler....to support, beler....to carry, daler....to speak
-[aiu]rer	tool use	ukarer....to shovel, purer....to drive, myekirer....to mill
-zer	perform an art	dazer....to dance, dezer....to act, deuzer...to sing

Verb Categories

Verbs have morphological categories, which involve changes to the verb not always found in the dictionary, but developed through rule-bound affixation (such as live, lives, lived, living). They also have lexical categories, which involve derived forms usually listed in dictionaries (enjoy, enjoyable, enjoyment)

Morphological Categories

Verbs are inflected with the following morphological categories:

• 2 STATES: finite, non-finite
• 4 TENSES: present, past, future, atemporal¹
• 5 ASPECTS: simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential
• 2 VOICES: active, passive
• 2 MOODS: indicative, hypothetical

Note 1: The term "atemporal" means that tense is not marked. For example, in Mirad, Pu! is the imperative of the verb per....to go. It means Go! and is atemporal. The -u ending is an atemporal hypothetical mood marker.

In effect, the PERSON/NUMBER category is not listed above, because this category does not affect the morphology of the Mirad verb form itself. The Mirad verb form stays the same for all persons and numbers. That information is contained in the external subject pronouns governing the verb. In English, for example, the verb "be" has several different forms in the present tense verb form depending on the person and number (I am, you are, he is, we are, etc.), but not so in Mirad. The following chart shows how the English pattern differs from the corresponding single Mirad verb form se for all persons and numbers:

Verb ser (to be) Unchanged for person/number

PERSON	NUMBER	ENGLISH	MIRAD
1st	Singular	I am	at se
2nd		you are	et se
3rd		he/she/it is	it se
1st	Plural	we are	yat se
2nd		you are	yet se
3rd		they are	yit se

This invariability of person/number exists for all tenses.

Lexical Categories

In addition, verbs can be described in terms of the following opposing lexical categories. By lexical, is meant that verbs having different lexical properties are listed in the dictionary and have nothing to do with conjugation.

Verb Lexical Categories

STATIVE	DYNAMIC
ser....to be	xer....to do
INTRANSITIVE	TRANSITIVE
agaser....to grow large	agaxer....to magnify
SUBJECT-DIRECTED	PATIENT-DIRECTED
bier....to take	buer....to give
REFLEXIVE	NON-REFLEXIVE
utvyixer....to wash up (wash oneself)	vyixer....to wash
INCHOATIVE	CAUSATIVE
tujper....fall asleep	tujber....put to sleep
AUTONOMOUS	DYNAMIC
yijer....to open (by itself)	yijber....to (make it) open
RECIPROCAL	NON-RECIPROCAL
hyuittujber....to kill one another	tujber....to kill
GESTURAL	LOCOMOTIVE
baser....to stir, budge	paser....to move
SUBJECT-ORIENTED	OBJECT-ORIENTED
teetyiker....to be hard of hearing	teetyikwer....to be hard to hear

Non-finite Forms

Non-finite verb forms are

• not conjugated for person or number
• cannot form a predicate
• and do not have a subject.

There are three kinds of non-finite verb forms in Mirad:

• infinitives: the dictionary lookup form of a verb, ending in -er
• gerunds: verbal nouns, ending in -en
• participles: verbal adjectives, ending in -a

Infinitives

Verbs are listed in the dictionary under the active voice simple aspect infinitive form, which always ends in er and means to X, or rarely the passive voice simple aspect infinitive form, which ends in wer and means to be Xed. The part of the verb form minus the -er or -wer is the verb stem.

Infinitive Stems

INFINITIVE	STEM	ENDING
agser....to grow	ags-	-er
igxer....to quicken	igx-	-er
per....to go	p-	-er
xwer....to happen, be done	x-	-wer

The infinitive in Mirad is used very much as its counterpart in English. The infinitive can be marked for two aspects (simple, perfect) and two voices (active, passive), as shown in the chart below, where the verb stems are underlined:

Active and Passive Infinitive Stems

ASPECT	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
Simple	igxer....to quicken	igxwer....to be quickened
Perfect	igxayer....to have quickened	igxawer....to have been quickened

In the above chart,

• the verb stem is igx- and
• the infinitive marker is -er;
• the simple aspect active voice marker is zero;
• the simple aspect passive voice marker is w;
• the perfect aspect active voice marker is -ay-;
• the past aspect passive voice marker is -aw-.

The passive voice infinitive of a verb will not appear in the dictionary unless it has a special meaning, such as xwer to happen. The perfect infinitives are never listed in the dictionary.

Gerunds

The gerund is a verbal noun like English playing in playing ball.

The gerund has two possible aspects (simple and perfect) and two possible voices (active and passive):

Gerund Formation

ASPECT	VOICE	ENDING	EXAMPLE
Simple	Active	-en	agaxen....magnifiying, magnification
Simple	Passive	-wen	agaxwen....being magnified
Perfect	Active	-ayen	byekayen....having cured
Perfect	Passive	-awen	byekawen....having been cured

Note: Intransitive verbs like per to go do not have a passive gerund form.

Lexicalized gerunds, such as sanxen formation, forming generally appear in the dictionary in the active voice.

Some examples of gerund usage:

• (sanxer....to form)    Ha sanxen bi hia mar efxa amroni bi jabi.....The forming (or: formation) of this star took millions of years.
• (deuzer....to sing)    Iyta deuzen sa gla via.....Her singing was very beautiful.
• (poper....to travel)    Popen se yika yex.....Traveling is hard work.
• (teeter....to hear)    Teetwen fiay se glatesa av dezuti.....Being heard well is important for actors.
• (teater....to see)    Teaten se vyatexen......Seeing is believing.
• (uper....to come)    His se ha jeb bi Upen.....This is the season of Advent (coming).
• (tadier....to get married)    Ata tadiayen ewa jodi bixa tepzex.....My having married twice drew attention.
• (aker....to win)    At voy ta ita akawen hua nuz.....I did not know about his having won that prize.

Gerunds, being verb forms, can take direct and indirect objects:

• At ifxwe bey eta buayen at hua nas.....I am pleased by your having given me that money.
• Tojben eut voy se kebiyaf.....Killing yourself is not an option.

The special gerundive ending -eyn gives a nuance emphasizing the action as a single act, much like the English endings -ment or -tion. Here are a few examples showing the difference between -en and -eyn.

• yanlaxen....combining  ≠<  yanlaxeyn....combination
• xen....doing  ≠<  xeyn....action, deed
• zayben....advancing  ≠<  zaybeyn....advancement

Another special gerundive (but lexical) ending is -un, which expresses the result of an action, eg.:

• zyegxer....to puncture  ≠<  zyegxun....a puncture
• zyeuber....to transmit  ≠<  zyeubun....a broadcast
• deuzer....to sing  ≠<  deuzun....a song

Participles

Participles are verbal adjectives and can modify nouns and pronouns. Since they act as adjectives, they have the adjectival ending -a. Participles are marked by aspect (simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential) and voice (active, passive).

The aspect markers per voice are:

Aspect Markers

ASPECT	VOICE	FORM	EXAMPLE
Progressive	Active	-ea-	tejea....living
	Passive	wea	xwea....happening
Perfect	Active 2	-ya	pya....gone (< pyaa1)
	Passive	-wa	xwa....done (< xwaa1), drawa2....written
Imminent	Active	-oa	tojoa....about to die
	Passive	-woa	dodelwoa....about to be announced
Potential	Active	-ua	tojbua....lethal
	Passive	-wua	opoxwua....unstoppable

¹: The double aa in the perfect endings is reduced to a.

²: The wa ending is changed to awa after stems ending in a double consonant, the second being l or r. Example: dr- (to write) becomes drawa (written).

Note 1: The perfect active particple ending in -ya is used only for intransitive verbs like per (to go). He is gone. is expressed by Wit se pya.

Note 2: The potential aspect, represented by the vowel u is much like the conditional in English, but is not considered a tense in Mirad. For example, tojbu means would kill and the participle tojbua means lethal (referring to something that would/has the potential to kill). More about this in a later section.

Note 3: There is another form of the progressive participle that falls in the lexical, rather than morphological category, in that such forms are listed in the dictionary as adjectives. For example, in the phrase The animals bothering our bird feeder..., the participle bothering would be oboxea in Mirad. By inserting the letter y between the verb stem and the participial ending, the participle becomes an adjective denoting a propensity or habit, as in bothersome (oboxyea). Such participles are invariably in the active voice. Most such adjectives in English end in -ive as in repulsive or -ly as in wiggly or -ous as in circuitous. Such adjectives in Mirad are listed in the dictionary and end in -yea.

Adverbial participles can be made from the above adjectival participles, by suffixing the letter y. Examples:

• Iyt yepa ha tim deuzeay.....She entered the room singing.
• Ujbaway ha dodal, it pia.....The speech having been finished, he left.

Also, the above participles can be converted into abstract nouns by suffixing n. Examples:

• tiluwa....drinkable → tiluwan....potability
• tojbua....lethal → tojbuan....lethality
• mansea....shining → he mansean bi iyta deuzen....the brilliance of her singing
• aakaxyea....inventive → aakaxyean....inventiveness

Furthermore, these participles can sometimes be pronominalized with s for things and t for people or living things. These forms can, in turn, be pluralized:

• xwa....done → xwas....what is done, a happening
• xwa....done → xwasi....happenings, deeds
• otwa....unknown → otwas....what is not known, a mystery
• osexea....destroying → osexeas....a destroyer
• tojbua....lethal → tojbuas....something lethal, a lethal thing
• tojboa....moribund → tojboati....people about to die, fatal cases
• tejea....living → tejeat....a living person
• tejea....living → tejeasi....living things

There is a special tenseless, nominalized, animate participle used for agent nouns (English one who does something, Xer, Xant, Xist), which refers to a person who habitually does some action, perhaps as a profession or trade. These agent nouns end in -ut.

• sexut....builder
• nuut....supplier
• tojbut....killer
• ifut....lover
• akuti....winners

Note: There is a slight difference of meaning between the tensed participial pronoun ha akeat....the one winning and the non-tensed agent noun ha akut....the winner.

Similarly, there is a special tenseless, nominalized, inanimate participle used for a thing that performs the action denoted by the verb stem. These agent nouns end in -us.

• yuxus....aid (a thing that helps)
• byuxwus....button (a thing that gets touched on the keyboard)
• paxus....motive (a thing that moves one)
• jaupus....precedent (a thing that comes before)

The above -us ending contrasts with the endings -ar (instrument), -ir (machine), -ur (motor, engine), which are physical objects and not always suffixed to a verbal root.

Finite Forms

In Mirad, finite verb forms are those that can take a person subject, serve as a predicate, and be conjugated. Finite verb forms are conjugated by using suffixes indicating, through their presence or absence, the following categories:

• TENSES

1. present
2. past
3. future
4. atemporal

• MOODS

1. indicative
2. hypothetical

• ASPECTS

1. simple
2. progressive
3. perfect
4. imminent
5. potential

• VOICES

1. active
2. passive
3. reflexive
4. reciprocal

Person and number are not marked on the verb form itself. For example, am, is, are, which change according to the person subject in English, are all expressed with the same verb form in Mirad: se. Thus, at se....I am, et se....you are, it se....he/she/it is, etc.

Moods

There are two moods in Mirad:

• indicative
• hypothetical.

Indicative Mood

The indicative form of the verb indicates an action or state that occurs in actual time, such as he went, he is going, he will go.

The indicative mood has three tenses, present, past, future, indicated by the suffixes -e, -a, and -o, respectively.

Hypothetical Mood

Wheras the indicative verb forms expresses actuality in time, the hypothetical mood expresses one of the non-actuality situations below and uses the vowel u.

• a command , i.e. the IMPERATIVE (Go!)
• a wish or suggestion, i.e. the HORTATIVE or JUSSIVE (May the king live long!, Let's celebrate!)
• an unrealized situation, i.e. the SUBJUNCTIVE (It is important that you be early.)
• an imagined if-then-situation, i.e. the CONDITIONAL (If I were rich, I would be happy.)

Aspects

There are five aspects in the Mirad verb system.

• the SIMPLE aspect (default), i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional.
• the PROGRESSIVE aspect, i.e. an action or state on-going in the particular tense, using ey
• the PERFECT aspect, i.e. an action or state anterior or already completed, using ay
• the IMMINENT aspect, i.e. an action or state about to happen, using oy
• the POTENTIAL aspect, i.e. an action potentially happening, using uy

The Simple Aspect

Unless specifically marked, the default aspect is simple, i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. Three indicative tenses can be expressed in the simple aspect:

• Present with e
• Past with a
• Future with o.

An atemporal verb ending in u in the simple aspect is considered hypothetical and expresses three things, depending on how it is used in the sentence:

• a conditional like I would go (if...)
• an imperative like Go!
• a hortative like Let's go!
• a subjunctive like (It is important that) we go.

Here is a chart showing the simple, active voice instantiations of the Mirad verb per (to go) with the endings underlined:

Simple Active Conjugation of Per

MOOD	TENSE	ASPECT	VOICE	INSTANTIATION	VERB per
Indicative	Present	Simple	Active		At pe....I go
Indicative	Past	Simple	Active		At pa....I went
Indicative	Future	Simple	Active		At po....I will go
Hypothetical	Atemporal	Simple	Active	Conditional	At pu....I would go
				Hortative/Optative/Jussive	Van yat pu!....Let's go!
				Imperative	Pu tam!....Go home!
				Subjunctive	Se efwa van et pu.....It is necessary that you go.

Note that the last four instantiations are the same tense, but differ in syntax. For example, if the verb form is hypothetical, atemporal, simple, active and has no subject, it operates as an imperative.

The Simple Indicative Present Active Tense

The simple indicative present instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix e and has a non-progressive (habitual) aspect as in English I work or I live. Progressive aspect forms like I am studying are explained later.

Examples:

• At yexe be tam. ....I work at home.
• Hia tom se nam. ....This building is a store.

The Simple Indicative Past Active Tense

The simple indicative past tense instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix a and has a non-progressive (punctual) meaning as in English I did something at some particular point in time. The simple past contrasts in aspect with the past progressive (I was doing something) or the present perfect (I have done something), or past potential (I would have done something). The simple past is punctual, that is, it describes an event that occurred at a particular point in time.

Examples:

• Iyt iba ha nyuf zojub. ....She received the package yesterday.
• At ujba ha dyes ji iwa jwobi. ....I finished the book three hours ago.
• His kyesa exag hijub.....This happened twice today.

The Simple Indicative Future Active Tense

The simple indicative future tense is marked with the vowel suffix o and has the same meaning as in English I will do something at some particular point in the future.

Examples:

• Yit tadso zajab.....They are going to get married next year.
• Hua kaxon ujako. ....That solution will work.

The Simple Hypothetical Atemporal Active Tense

A verb form ending in u like pu has no time value and is used to express unreal actions or states, such as the imperative, hortative, conditional, or subjunctive.

Examples:

• Upu him!....Come here! (IMPERATIVE)
• Von upu! ....Don't come! (NEGATIVE IMPERATIVE)
• Ha edeb fu teater et. ....The king would like to see you. (CONDITIONAL)
• Ven at su et, at dolu. ....If I were you, I would be quiet. (CONDITIONAL)
• Van yeyt ujaku be yeytia yexnadi. ....May all you (women) succeed in your careers. (HORTATIVE)
• Van yat ijbu bay fyadil. ....Let's begin with a prayer. (JUSSIVE)
• Se kyitesa van et puu jwa. ....It's important that you arrive early. (SUBJUNCTIVE)
• Se kyitesa von et puu jwo.....It's important that you not arrive late. (NEGATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE)

Hypothetical verb forms ending in -u can be interpreted in various ways, depending on the following syntactical patterns in the sentence:

• Generally, if a verb form ending in -u begins a sentence and has no subject, then it is an IMPERATIVE (a command). For example, Ipu!, Go away!.
• If the verb form has a subject not preceded by the complementizers van, ven, or von, then it is probably a CONDITIONAL predicate like At fu per.....I would like to go..
• If the subject of the verb is preceded by ven....if, then it is a CONDITIONAL clause as in Ven at su nasikat.......If I were a rich man..
• If the subject is preceded by Van....that/let/may or von....don't, then it is a HORTATIVE wish like Van et yagteju.....May you live long. or a JUSSIVE suggestion like Van yat fyadilu.....Let us pray. or a prohibition like Von tiliu his!....Don't drink this!.

Voices

Mirad has four voices:

• Active
• Passive
• Reflexive
• Reciprocal.

Active Voice

The default voice is active, i.e. the subject of the verb is doing the action.

• At teata ha kyes.....I saw the event.

Passive Voice

A verb form is converted from active to passive by inserting a w just before the last vowel of the verb form. The past passive particle ending -waa is usually abbreviated to -wa (done is xwa). However, if the verb stem ends in a consonant plus l or r, then -wa is changed to -awa for ease of pronunciation, eg. drawa....written.

The following chart shows the distinction between active and passive voice of various verbs:

Contrasting Active and Passive Voice

VERB FORM	ACTIVE	ACTIVE EXAMPLE	PASSIVE	PASSIVE EXAMPLE
Infinitive	xer to do	At fe xer fi. I want to do well.	xwer to be done	Ese hyos xwer. There is nothing to be done.
Present Participle	sexea constructing	Ha yansyem sexea hia tom... The firm constructing this building...	sexewa being constructed	His se sexewa. This is under construction.
Present	xe do/does	At xe fi be tistam. I do well in school.	xwe is done	Huyenasi hoj xwe. Such things are never done.
Past Participle	xaa having done	Iyt, xaa hya iyta yex,... She, having done all her work,...	xwa done	Hyas se xwa. Everything is done.
Past	tojba killed	Duhat tojba hwut? Who killed that guy?	tojbwa was killed	Duhaj it tojbwa? When was he killed?
Hypothetical	bakxu heal	Bakxu at! Heal me!	bakxwu be healed	Van it bakxwu. May he be healed.

Many intransitive verbs cannot be made passive. For example, tajer....to be born is intransitive (takes no object) and has no passive voice form. However, the transitive verb tajber....to bear, give birth can be passive, as in Ha tudet tajbwa zajub.....The child was delivered yesterday (as opposed to Ha tudet taja zajub.....The child was born yesterday.) Notice the following verb:

• Ha mes uja.....The door opened (by itself). (medio-passive)
• Ha mes ujpa.....The door came open. (dynamic medio-passive)
• Ujbu ha mes.....Open the door. (transitive active)
• Ha mes ujbwa.....The door was opened (by someone). (passive)

Reflexive Voice

A verb is made reflexive by prefixing the reflexive pronoun ut (self), for example:

• tojber....to kill → uttojber....to kill oneself
• vyilxer....to wash → utvyilxer....to wash up
• teater....to see → utteater....to see oneself
• yalber....to lift → utyalber....to lift oneself → Utyalbu!....Lift yourself up!
• trer....to know → uttrer....to know oneself → Uttru!....Know thyself!

Reciprocal Voice

A verb is made reciprocal by prefixing the reciprocal pronoun hyuit....one another, for example:

• tojber....to kill → hyuittojber....to kill one another
• vyilxer....to wash → hyuitvyilxer....to wash one another
• teater....to see → hyuitteater....to see one another

Both the reflexive pronoun and reciprocal pronoun can be used as standalone objects. However, the plural form yut is used if the subject is plural, for example:

• Yit vyilxa yut.....They (f.) washed up. (= washed selves).
• Ha twobeti dizeuda hyuit.....The boys laughed at one another.

The word hyuit is a hybrid of hyit....the same one combined with hyut....the other one.

Aspects Revisited

Mirad verbs have the following aspects:

• SIMPLE -- this is the default aspect, shown above, i.e. NON-PROGRESSIVE, NON-PERFECT, NON-IMMINENT, and NON-POTENTIAL.
• PROGRESSIVE -- this is an aspect where the verb describes an on-going action or state spread over time.
• PERFECT -- this presents the action or state as anterior, or completed prior to another action or state.
• IMMINENT -- this describes an action or state about to happen.
• POTENTIAL -- this refers to an action or state where something is possible.

The Simple Aspect

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Simple aspect. In the active voice, the tense vowels a, e, o, and u are affixed to the stem. In the passive voice, the passive marker consonant w is inserted between the stem and the final tense vowels. The simple present tense refers to actions or states that are habitual (I regularly go to school.), regular (The earth revolves around the sun.), or permanent (Blue is a color.). The simple past refers to actions or states that occurred at a fixed point in time (I did my homework last night.). The simple future refers to actions or states that will occur at some particular point in the future (The sun will rise tomorrow at dawn.). The simple atemporal hypothetical ( = conditional) refers to an imagined action or state that has not be realized (You would make a good president.).

Simple Aspect

ASPECT	TENSE	MOOD	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
Simple	Present	Indicative	At xe....I do	Has xwe....It is done
Simple	Past	Indicative	At xa....I did	Has xwa....It was done
Simple	Future	Indicative	At xo....I will do	Has xwo....It will be done
Simple	Atemporal	Hypothetical	At xu....I would do	Has xwu....It would be done

Note: Absence of tense (Atemporal) + Hypothetical mood = CONDITIONAL

The Progressive Aspect

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Progressive aspect. The present tense vowel e followed by a buffer consonant, are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice.

Progressive Aspect

ASPECT	TENSE	MOOD	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
Progressive	Present	Indicative	at xeye....I am doing	Has xewe....it is being done
Progressive	Past	Indicative	at xeya....I was doing	Has xewa....it was being done
Progressive	Future	Indicative	at xeyo....I am going to be doing	Has xewo....it will be happening
Progressive	Atemporal	Hypothetical	at xeyu....I would be doing	Has xewu....it would be happening

The Perfect Aspect

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Perfect aspect. The past tense vowel a following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice.

Perfect Aspect

ASPECT	TENSE	MOOD	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
Perfect	Present	Indicative	At xaye....I have done	Has xawe....It has been done
Perfect	Past	Indicative	At xaya....I had done	Has xawa....It had been done
Perfect	Future	Indicative	At xayo....I will have done	Has xawo....It will have been done
Perfect	Atemporal	Hypothetical	At xayu....I would have done	Has xawu....It would have been done

The Imminent Aspect

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Imminent aspect (sometimes referred to as the Prospective aspect). The future tense vowel o following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice. Not that only indicative mood imminent tenses are ever used.

Imminent Aspect

ASPECT	TENSE	MOOD	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
Imminent	Present	Indicative	At xoye....I am about to do	Has xowe....It is about to be done
Imminent	Past	Indicative	At xoya....I was about to do	Has xowa....It was about to be done

The Potential Aspect

The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Potential aspect. The hypothetical vowel u followed by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or w in the passive voice. The future potential and hypothetical potential aspects are never used.

Potential Aspect

ASPECT	TENSE	MOOD	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
Potential	Present	Indicative	At xuye....I am to do	Has xuwe....It is to be done, it is doable
Potential	Past	Indicative	At xuya....I was to do	Has xuwa....It was to be done, it was doable

Verb Conjugation Chart

The following chart presents the totality of the Mirad affirmative verb conjugation system using the verb xer....to do and its passive xwer....to be done, happen. The rows beginning with a light blue background are finite forms, while those beginning with light green are non-finite forms.

Verb Conjugation Chart

STATE	MOOD	ASPECT	TENSE	VOICE
				ACTIVE	PASSIVE
Finite	Indicative	Simple	Present	xe does	xwe is done, happens
			Past	xa did	xwa was done, happened
			Future	xo will do	xwo will be done, will happen
	Hypothetical			xu would do, do!	xwu would be done, would happen, be done!
	Indicative	Progressive	Present	xeye is doing	xewe is being done, is happening
			Past	xeya was doing	xewa was doing, was happening
			Future	xeyo will be doing	xewo will be happening
	Hypothetical			xeyu would be doing be doing!	xewu would be happening
	Indicative	Perfect	Present	xaye has done	xawe has been done, has happened
			Past	xaya had done	xawa had been done, had happened
			Future	xayo will have done	xawo will have been done, will have happened
	Hypothetical			xayu would have done	xawu would have been done, would have happened
	Indicative	Imminent	Present	xoye is about to do	xowe is about to be done, is about to happen
			Past	xoya was to be done	xowa was to be done, was to happen
		Potential	Present	xuye is supposed to do	xuwe is supposed to happen
			Past	xuya was supposed to do	xuwa was supposed to be done, was supposed to happen
Infinitive		Simple		xer to do	xwer to be done, to happen
		Perfect		xayer to have done	xawer to have been done, to have happend
Participle		Progressive	xea doing	xewa being done, happening
		Perfect	x(a)ya2 having done	x(a)wa1 done, happened
		Imminent	xoa about to do	xowa about to happen
		Potential	xua bound to do	xuwa doable
Gerund		Simple		xen doing	xwen being done, happening, event
		Perfect		xayen having done	xawen having happened

Note 1: The perfective passive participle usually ends in -wa, but occasionally the longer form -awa is used, especially if the verb stem ends in a consonant followed by l or r that make the shorter form harder to pronounce, eg. pyuxrwa becomes pyuxrawa (shocked).

Note 2: Intransitive verbs such as per to go have no passive forms. An expression such as They are gone. would be translated as Yit se pya.

Negative Forms

All of the above verb forms are affirmative. The indicative and conditional forms can be made negative by preceding the negative adverb voy (not, 'nt, doesn't, don't). Those forms that are subjunctive, jussive, or imperative ending in -u use the negative subordinate conjunction von (don't, let not, lest).

• Voy mamilo.....It will not rain. (indicative)
• Von mamilu.....Let it not rain. (subjunctive)
• Von yat fuyaku.....Let us not despair. (jussive)
• At voy te.....I don't know.
• Von pu!....Don't go. (imperative)
• At voy xu hus.....I would not do that.

How to Express Certain English Tenses

English speakers have some tenses that do not fit into the above schema:

• The English tense I have been studying French for four years. is translated in Mirad by At tixeye Ferad ji uwa jabi.....I am studying French since four years. (Mirad present progressive tense).
• The English tense I had been studying is translated in Mirad by At tixeya. (Mirad past progressive tense).
• The English tense I am going to be starring in that role. is translated in Mirad by At dezdebeyo be hua dezgon. (Mirad future progressive).
• The modern Black English tense Don't you be doing that. is handled in Mirad by Von et xeyu hus. (Mirad imperative progressive).

Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs

Transitive verbs, which can take a direct object, oppose themselves to intransitive verbs, which do not take a direct object. Some verbs are marked overtly for transitivity.

Verbs that end in xer (to do, -ify, -ize) are by nature transitive, and often have intransitive counterparts in ser (to be, become, -ify, -ize). Likewise, verbs ending in ber (to put, take) are transitive and have intransitive counterparts in per (to go). Here are some examples:

Transitive vs. Intransitive

TRANSITIVE	INTRANSITIVE
xer....do	ser....be
agxer....grow (something)	agser....grow (up)
amxer....heat, make hot	amser....become hot, heat up
puxer....throw	puser....jump
per....go	ber....put
aber....put on	aper....get on
yaber....raise	yaper....rise
poxer....stop (something)	poser....(come to a) stop
yuber....bring	yuper....approach
yeber....insert	yeper....enter

• At agxe vobi.....I grow [TRANSITIVE] plants.
• Ha vobi agseye ig.....The plants are growing [INTRANSITIVE] fast.

• Poxu ha pur!....Stop [TRANSITIVE] the car!
• Ha pur posa.....The car stopped [INTRANSITIVE].

• At yaba ha mis.....I raised [TRANSITIVE] the window.
• Ha maar yapaye.....The sun has risen [INTRANSITIVE].

Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity

Note the following verbs, whose stems end in j are hard to pronounce with intransitive s and transitive x, so these two endings are placed with p and b, respectively, although the presence of the p is optional, i.e. it's presence or absence can slightly change the meaning from static to dynamic, eg. tujer....to sleep vs. tujper....to fall asleep. The transitive forms can be either active or passive.

Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity

INTRANSITIVE		TRANSITIVE
STATIC	DYNAMIC	ACTIVE	PASSIVE
Ha mes yija The door opened.	Ha nasyef yijpa The purse came open.	At yijba ha mes. I opened the door.	Ha mes yijbwa bey yelput. The door was opened by an intruder
Ha mes yuja. The door closed.	Ha yanup yujpa. The meeting adjourned.	At yujba ha mes. I closed the door.	Ha mes yeyfe yujbwer ja sumjob. The door should be closed by bedtime.
Ha dezun ijaye. The play has started.	Ha par ijpa boy poys. The car started up immediately.	At ijba ata tyal. I started my meal.	Ha tyal ijbwa jwa. The meal was started early.
Ha dezun ujaye. The play has ended.	Ata yex ujpaye. My work has come to an end.	A ujba ha dyes. I finished the book.	Ha dyes hyoj ujbwa. The book never got finished.
Ha tob toja zomoj. The man died yesterday evening.	Ha tob tojpa. The man dropped dead.	Hot tojba ha twob? Who killed the man?	Ha twob tojbwa bey ita tayd. The man was killed by his wife.
Teju. Live!.	Tejpu!. Come alive!.	Yat efe tejber ha twob. We need to revive the man.	Ha twob yofwa tejbwer. The man could not be revived.
Ha tobot taja zojub. The baby was born yesterday.	Hoj ha tobot tajpo? When will the baby pop out?	Iyt tajba awa twobot zojub. She gave birth to a baby boy yesterday.	Ha twobot tajbwa jo eymoj. The baby boy was birthed after midnight.
At tija jwe. I woke up on time.	It voy tijpa. He did not come to..	At tijbo et jwa. I will wake (you) up early.	At voy fe tijbwo gra jwa. I don't want to be woken too early.
At tujeya. I was sleeping.	At tujpeya. I was falling sleep.	At tujbo it. I will put (him) to sleep..	Ha tobot tujbwo glojo. The baby will be put to sleep soon.

Reflexive Verbs

Reflexive verbs, where the object refers back to the subject, work just as in English, where the object is a reflexive pronoun, eg.:

• At tujboye aut.....I am going to kill myself.
• Tru eut!....Know thyself!
• It gobla iut bey goblar.....He cut himself with a knife.
• Ot yefe yuxer out.....One must help oneself.

Sometimes, verbs are reflexive lexically and incorporate the reflexivity in the actual verb form using ut as the prefix:

• uttujber....commit suicide (= self-kill)
• utboler....support oneself (= self-support)
• utdider....wonder (= self-ask)

Sometimes, verbs are used reflexively in Mirad even though they are used simply intransitively in English, eg.:

• Et efe vyilxer eut.....You need to wash up [= wash yourself]. (or)
• Et efe utvyilxer.....You need to wash up [= self-wash].

Omission of Prepositions After Certain Verbs

Some verbs inherently incorporate a preposition and so it is not necessary to use that assumed preposition before what would normally be an indirect object.

Inherent Propositions

PREPOSITION-INCORPORATING VERB	EXAMPLE
per....go (to)	Pu tam! (Not: Pu bu tam!) Go home. It pa Paris.....He went to Paris.
der....say (to), tell	Du at eta dyun.....Tell me your name. Du at has.....Tell it to me.
peser....wait (for)	Pesu at.....Wait for me.
buer....give (to)	Buu at hua dyes.....Give me that book.

As in English, in omitting the inherent preposition in a sentence with both a direct object and an indirect object, place the indirect object before the direct object. If the direct object comes first, then the preposition must be overtly specified before the indirect object, eg. Buu at hus.....Give me that. or Buu hus bu at.....Give that to me. See more about this in the chapter on Syntax.

Causative vs. Inchoative Verbs

A causative verb has the sense to make something have some quality, whereas an inchoative verbs means to become of take on the quality of something.

Derived from Adjectives

Adjectives can be converted into transitive/causative and intransitive/inchoative verbs. Causative verbs are always transitive (taking an object), while inchoative verbs are intransitive (not taking an object). English causative / inchoative verbs often end in -ify like magnify, or -ate, liberate, or ize, like sensitize.

To derive a causative verb from an adjective, add the suffix xer....to do to either the stem or the whole adjective (with the a ending). Whether you do the former or the latter depends on several factors, but the end result is slightly different in nuance. A verb with adjective stem + xer is slightly more idiomatic or less literal than the adjective stem + axer.

-axer vs -xer in Transitive Verbs

ADJECTIVE	CAUSATIVE/TRANSITIVE	CAUSATIVE/TRANSITIVE
-xer	LITERAL	IDIOMATIC
aga big	agaxer to magnify	agxer to grow
ana one	anaxer to unify	anxer to unite
yona apart	yonaxer to separate	yonxer to cut
yaga long	yagaxer to lengthen	yagxer to stretch
yuga slow	yugaxer to retard	yugxer to brake
sana formal	sanaxer to formalize	sanxer to form
gea equal	geaxer to equalize	gexer to copy, equate
jaa prior	jaaxer to prioritize	jaxer to prepare

To derive an inchoative verb from an adjective, add the suffix ser....to be to either the stem or the whole adjective.

Creating Inchoative Verbs

ADJECTIVE	INCHOATIVE/INTRANSITIVE	INCHOATIVE/INTRANSITIVE
-ser	LITERAL	IDIOMATIC
aga big	agaser to get bigger	agser to grow
ana one	anaser to unify	anser to unite, become united
yona apart	yonaser to become separate	yonser to break

Be careful to use the transitive, causative verb form when you have a direct object, and the intransitive, inchoative verb form when no direct objects are present or possible, eg.:

• Ansu ey yet golxwo.....Unite or you will be divided. [INTRANSITIVE]
• At yontadsa hoj at sa eta jag.....I got divorced when I was your age. [INTRANSITIVE]
• Hisi agaxo hos et teate.....These will magnify what you see. [TRANSITIVE]
• Hia tud agseye ig.....This child is growing up fast. [INTRANSITIVE]
• Ata tayd agxe vosi be oyebzom.....My wife grows flowers out back. [TRANSITIVE]

Derived from Nouns

Transitive/causative/active and intransitive/inchoative/passive verbs can also be formed from nouns. The sense of the former is to make be X and of the latter, to become X.

Verbs Derived from Nouns

NOUN	TRANSITIVE/CAUSATIVE/ACTIVE	INTRANSITIVE/INCHOATIVE/PASSIVE
mog....ash	mogxer to incinerate	mogser to become ashes
yan....collection	yanxer to collect	yanser to get together
tad....spouse	tadxer to marry	tadser to get married
yom....ice	yomxer to freeze/make ice	yomser to freeze/become ice
mag....fire	magxer to burn, set fire to	magser to burn, get burned
uk....void	ukxer to empty	ukser become empty, empty out

Intermediary Causative Verbs

Intermediary verbal causatives like have/get my car washed, make/force him go, get one's hair cut are formed by suffixing the causative verb infix -ux- (active) or uxw (passive) to the stem of the verb signifying the action to be arranged or caused by someone other than the subject, eg.:

• At gorbuxo ata tayeb zamaj.....I will get my hair cut tomorrow.
• Et voy yafe puxer at.....You cannot make me go.
• It tojbuxa yit.....He had them killed.
• At efe vyilxuxer ata par.....I need to have my car washed.
• Et upuxwa him hesav.....You were made to come here for some reason.
• At bakambuxo et.....I will have you hospitalized.
• Et voy yafe deuzuxer at.....You cannot make me sing.
• At hihiduxwa.....I was tickled (= made to laugh).
• Eta deuz hihiduxa yat.....Your song tickled us. (= Made us laugh.)
• Van het ivasuxu weti.....May someone get you guys to be happy.
• Hua enzyukpur uzpuxa ha pur.....That motorcycle caused the car to veer.

Subject-directed vs. Patient-directed Verbs

The directionality of some verbs can be distinguished by the verbal formant infix -i- for an action or motion toward the speaker and -u- for an action or motion away from the speaker toward some patient, eg.:

Directional Verbs

SUBJECT-DIRECTED	PATIENT-DIRECTED
bier....to take	buer....to give
nier....to consume	nuer....to supply
nyier....to order	nyuer....to deliver
nunier....to buy	nunuer....to sell
nazunier....win a prize	nazunuer....award a prize
noysier....pay off	noysuer....charge
ojbier....borrow	ojbuer....lend
tadier....get married	taduer....marry off
papier....take flight	papuer....send off flying
pipier....set sail	pipuer....dock
simbier....take a seat	simbuer....offer a seat
tampier....leave home	tampuer....arrive home
tamier....settle in	tamuer....shelter
nuxbier....to buy	nixbuer....to sell
telier....to eat	teluer....to feed
gonbier....to participate	gonbuer....to share
tilier....to drink	tiluer....to ply with drink
teubier....to swallow	teubuer....to spit out
teatier....to observe, watch	teatuer....to show
taxier....to memorize	taxuer....to remind
alier....to breathe in	aluer....to breathe out, expire
ilier....to absorb	iluer....to pour
ifier....to enjoy	ifuer....to please
dier....to ask	duer....to suggest
tier....to learn	tuer....to inform
pier....to depart	puer....to arrive
kebier....to choose	kebuer....to distribute
byier....to originate	byuer....to target
mempier....to take off	mempuer....to land
sinier....visualize	sinuer....display
xier....to result	xuer....to cause
yifier....to get up the courage	yifuer....to encourage, challenge
yafonier....to gain power	yafonuer....to empower
trier....to become acquainted with	truer....to acquaint with, introduce to
tepizier....to pay attention to	tepizuer....to draw attention to

In some cases, the directionality can be both ways in a verb, in which case the verb formant infix -ui- (a hybrid form) is used, eg.:

• nunier ....to purchase (subject-directed)
• nunuer....to sell (patient-directed)
• nunuier....to trade (subject & patient-directed)

• tier....to learn, realize (subject-directed)
• tuer....to inform, tip off (patient-directed)
• tuier....to communicate (subject & patient-directed)

• alier....to breathe in, inhale (subject-directed)
• aluer....to breathe out, exhale (patient-directed)
• aluier....to breathe, respire (subject & patient-directed)

• bier ....to take (subject-directed)
• buer....to give (patient-directed)
• buier....to give and take, exchange (subject & patient-directed)

Verbs with Vectorial Prefixes

Prepositions and directional adverbs can be prefixed to verbs in order to change their vectorial semantics. A preposition ending in b will assimilate to p before the verb per....to go and a preposition ending in b will lose the b before a verb beginning with b. Here are some examples:

Verb Prepositional Prefixes

PREPOSITION/ADVERB	TRANSITIVE VERB	INTRANSITIVE VERB
ab....on	aber....apply	aper....get on, mount
ob....off	ober....remove	oper....get of, dismount
eb....between	eber....block	eper....intervene
yab....up	yaber....raise	yaper....rise
yob....down	yober....take down	yoper....descend
yub....near	yuber....bring near	yuper....approach
yib....far	yiber....take away	yiper....go far away
yeb....in	yeber....insert	yeper....enter
yeb....in	yepuxer....throw in	yepuser....jump in
oyeb....out	oyeber....expose	oyeper....exit
oyeb....out	oyepuxer....eject	oyepuser....jump out
zyu....round	zyuber....rotate	zyuper....revolve
zya....throughout	zyaber....spread	zyaper....tour
av....for	avdaler....plead	avper....pursue
ov....against	ovber....oppose	ovper....countervene
yan....together	yanber....compose	yanper....meet
yon....apart	yonber....separate	yonper....separate
iz....direct	izber....lead	izper....head
uz....curved	uzber....divert	uzper....diverge
yuz....around	yuzbexer....surround	yuzper....circulate
yiz....beyond	yizber....transfer	yizper....surpass
zoy....back, re-	zoyber....return	zoyper....go back

Verbs with Other Semantics-altering Prefixes

As in English and many other languages, prefixes can be used on verbs to reverse, mitigate, or otherwise alter the semantics:

Expressing re- with zoy- or gaw-

The prefix zoy-....back or gaw-¹....again are used like the English prefix re-, eg.:

• ember....to position → zoyember....to reposition, replace
• buer....to give → zoybuer....to return (an object), give back
• sanxer....to shape, form → zoysanxer....to reshape, reform, transform
• zyauber....to broadcast → gawzyauber....to re-broadcast
• taja....born → gawtaja....reborn
• aber....to apply → gawaber....to reapply
• uper....to come → zoyuper....to return (come back)
• teaper....to visit → gawteaper....to revisit
• uper....to come → zoyuper....to return, come back
• buxer....to push → zoybuxer....to repel, push back
• puxer....to throw → zoypuxer....to reject, throw back, jettison

Note 1: The prefix gaw- before a consonant is pronounced like the gaw in the English word gawk. It is short for ga awa jod or gawa meaning one more time, again. If the "re-" word means to do something again, then gaw- is used, eg. To reconvene ( = meet again)....gawyanuper If the sense of back is intended, than the prefix zoy- is used, eg. To return ( = come back)....zoyuper. Both prefixes are used in the expression Come back again!....Gawzoyupu!.

Until we meet again. is expressed by Ju van yat gawyanupo.

Expressing de-, dis-, un- with lo-

The prefix lo- reverses the semantics of a verb and is like English dis-, de-, or un-, eg.:

• saxer....to build, construct → losaxer....to destroy, deconstruct
• anxer....to unite → loanxer....to disunite
• xer....to do → loxer....to undo

Note the difference between o- and lo-.

• odoparuwa....unarmed (= not armed)
• lodoparuwa....disarmed (= from the verb lodoparuer....to disarm)

Expressing co- with yan-

The prefix yan-....together is used as the English co-, eg.:

• exer....to operate → yanexer....to cooperate
• tamer....to dwell → yantamer....to cohabit
• napber....to put in order → yannapber....to coordinate

Making Verbs Completive with ik-

Verbs can be made completive by prefixing them with ik- (fully). Such verbs are comparable to phrasal verbs in English with up and other prepositions as in to eat up. Here are some examples in Mirad:

• tojber....to kill → iktojber....to kill off, exterminate
• telier....to eat → iktelier....to eat up
• ujber....to finish → ikujber....to finish off/up
• gofler....to rip → ikgofler....to rip up
• drer....to write → ikdrer....to write down
• byexer....to beat → ikbyexer....to beat up

Making Verbs Continuative with je-

Verbs can be given a continuative nuance with the addition of the prefix je-:

• daler....to talk → jedalar....to go on talking, to blabber
• tejer....to live → jetejer....to go on living, to survive
• yexer....to work → jeyexer....to go on working, to keep working
• teaxer....to look → jeteaxer....to watch
• teexer....to listen → jeteexer....to keep listening, to pay attention
• duler....to insist → jeduler....to nag

Making Verbs Inchoative with ij-

Verbs can be given an inchoative nuance with the addition of the prefix ij-:

• texer....to think → ijtexer....to start to think
• ifier....to enjoy → ijifier....to start liking
• tyer....to know → ijtyer....to get to know

Making Verbs Terminative with uj-

Verbs can be given a terminative nuance with the addition of the prefix uj-:

• telier....to eat → ujtelier....to finish eating
• dyeer....to read → ujdyeer....to finish reading
• ufteuder....to complain → ujufteuder....to quit carping

Giving Verbs a Nuance of Pleasure with if-

• tyoper....to walk → iftyoper....to stroll
• tuyuxer....to finger → iftuyuxer....to tickle
• teaxer....to look → ifteaxer....to ogle (voyeuristically)
• piper....to sail → ifpiper....to go cruising
• teuder....to shout → ifteuder....to laugh

Giving Verbs a Nuance of Displeasure with uf-

• tosier....to feel → uftosier....to get angry
• eker....to play → ufeker....to fight
• der....to say → ufder....to express displeasure
• aluer....to exhale → ufaluer....to huff
• daler....to talk → ufdaler....to rant

Giving Verbs a Nuance of Prohibition with of-

• bier....to take → ofbier....to steal
• deler....to declare → ofdeler....to ban
• yeper....to enter → ofyeper....to intrude, break in
• zeyper....to cross → ofzeyper....to transgress, poach
• gelxer....to copy → ofgelxer....to pirate, plagiarize
• bekuluer....to administer medicine → ofbekuluer....to dope
• nuxuer....to pay → ofnuxuer....to bribe, pay off, suborn

Giving Verbs a Nuance of Holiness with fya-

• bexler....to keep → fyabexler....to enshrine
• buer....to give → fyabuer....to sacrifice
• der....to say → fyader....to bless
• daler....to speak → fyadaler....to preach, sermonize
• diler....to request → fyadiler....to pray
• deuzer....to sing → fyadeuzer....to chant
• ifrer....to love dearly → fyaifrer....to worship, adore
• jader....to predict → fyajader....to prophesy
• miluer....to sprinkle → fyamiluer....to sprinkle with holy water
• ojvader....to promise → fyaojvader....to swear
• xeler....to practice → fyaxeler....to celebrate
• koser....to hide → fyakoser....to go on a retreat, go into hermitage
• teazer....perform a show → fyateazer....to perform a miracle

Giving Verbs a Nuance of Profanity with fyo-

• der....to say → fyoder....to curse
• diler....to request → fyodiler....to conjure
• tyezer....to perform magic → fyotezer....to engage in black magic
• xer....to do → fyoxer....to sin

Expressing Good Actions with fi-

• der....to say → fider....to praise
• fer....to want → fifer....to mean well
• xer....to do → fixer....to do well
• yaker....to expect → fiyaker....to hope
• yuxer....to help → fiyuxer....to benefit

Expressing Bad Actions with fu-

• yevder....to judge → fuyevder....to critique negatively
• fer....to want → fufer....to will ill
• der....to say → fuder....to badmouth
• napxer....to arrange → funapxer....to mess up
• yuxer....to help → fuyuxer....to abuse

Expressing More Intense Actions with az-

• yujber....to close → azyujber....to lock
• der....to say → azder....to emphasize
• duer....to suggest → azduer....to urge
• dizeuder....to laugh → azdizeuder....to guffaw

Expressing Less Intense Actions with oz-

• der....to utter → ozder....to whisper
• duer....to suggest → ozduer....to hint
• dizeuder....to laugh → ozdizeuder....to chuckle
• uvteuder....to moan → ozuvteuder....to whimper
• tyoper....to walk → oztyoper....to limp

Expressing pre-, fore- with ja-

• der....to tell → jader....to foretell, predict
• teater....to see → jateater....to foresee, preview
• ter....to know → jater....to presage, have foreknowledge of
• yever....to judge → jayever....to prejudge
• juder....to date → jajuder....to antedate

Expressing post-, after- with jo-

• juder....to date → jojuder....to postdate
• texer....to think → jotexer....to reflect on, review
• uvder....to express sadness → jouvder....to mourn, regret
• ibler....to obtain → joibler....to inherit

Expressing excessively with gra-

• telier....to eat → gratelier....to overeat
• fer....to want → grafer....to covet
• der....to say → grader....to exaggerate
• daler....to talk → gradaler....to yammer

Expressing inadequately with gro-

• fyinder....to value → grofyinder....to underestimate
• mageler....to cook → gromageler....to undercook
• xaer....to perform → groxaer....to underperform

Expressing counter-, contra- with ov- or oyv-

• axler....to act → ovaxler....to counteract
• apyexer....to attack → ovapyexer....to counterattack
• daler....to speak → ovdaler....to oppose
• der....to say → oyvder....to contradict
• ber....to put → oyvber....to reverse, overturn
• texer....to think → oyvtexer....to contest, disagree
• per....to go → oyvper....to contravene

Expressing on behalf, for with av-

• axler....to act → avaxler....to act on behalf of
• daler....to speak → avdaler....to advocate, speak on behalf of

Making Verbs Reflexive with ut- (self-, auto-)

• tojber....to kill → uttojber....to commit suicide
• vyovider....to flatter → utvyovider....to flatter oneself
• zaypuxwer....to be propelled → utzaypuxwer....to be self-propelled
• fider....to praise → utfider....to brag
• gober....to decrement → utgober....to autodecrement

Making Verbs Reciprocal with hyuit- (one another)

• tojber....to kill → hyuittojber....to kill one another
• ifer....to love → hyuitifer....to love one another

Expressing inter-, intra- with eb- (between)

• tadier....to marry → ebtadier....to intermarry
• zyaber....to spread → ebzyaber....to intersperse
• vyexer....to relate → ebvyexer....to interrelate

Expressing the Opposite of an Action with o- (un-)

• bexler....to keep → obexler....to release, let go of
• aynser....to integrate → oaynser....to disintegrate, to decay
• beler....to carry → obeler....to drop
• bier....to take → obier....to leave, relinquish
• boser....to be quiet → oboser....to be upset
• drer....to write → odrer....to erase

Note: If the base verb already begins with the negative prefix o-, then the prefix is changed to ol-, eg. obexler....to release → olobexwa....to unreleased

Expressing a Public or Official Action with do-

Do- is a stub for dot (society).

• afder....to allow → doafder....to authorize
• bier....to take → dobier....to conquer, take over, take control of
• tojber....to kill → dotojber....to execute
• buer....to give → dobuer....to dedicate
• daler....to speak → dodaler....to orate, speak in public
• deler....to declare → dodeler....to announce
• drer....to write → dodrer....to publicize, report

Giving Verbs a Nuance of Truth with vya-

• der....to say → vyader....to avow, be frank
• ber....to set, put → vyaber....to control
• napxer...to arrange, order → vyanapxer....to adjust
• kexer....to seek → vyakexer....to investiage
• tuer....to inform → vyatuer....to advise

Giving Verbs of Nuance of Falseness with vyo-

• der....to say → vyoder....to lie, to misstate
• tester....to understand → vyotester....to misunderstand
• tuer....to inform → vyotuer....to misinform, to deceive
• xer....to do → vyoxer....to do wrong, fail, misdo
• yuxler....to serve → vyoyuxler....to betray, to serve unfaithfully

Making Verbs Positive with va-

• der....to say → vader....to affirm
• texer....to think → vatexer....to believe
• yeker....to expect → vayeker....to presume
• bier.....to take → vabier....to accept

Making Verbs Negative with vo-

• der....to say → voder....to deny
• texer....to think → votexer....to doubt
• yeker....to expect → voyeker....to rule out
• bier.....to take → vobier....to reject

Making Verbs Suppositional with ve-

• der....to say → veder....to conjecture
• texer....to think → vetexer....to suppose, hypothesize
• yovder....to blame → veyovder....to indict, accuse

Speeding up Verbs with ig-

• pier....to leave → igpier....to flee
• pyoser....to drop → igpyoser....to plummet
• tyoper....to walk → igtyoper....to run
• yeper....to enter → igyeper....to rush in

Slowing up Verbs with ug-

• paser....to move → ugpaser....to amble
• teaxer....to look → ugteaxer....to gaze
• ilper....to flow → ugilper....to trickle
• tilier....to drink → ugtilier....to sip

Expressing the Nuance of Suddenness with yok-

• baxer....to stir → yokbaxer....to startle
• hihider....to laugh → yokhihider....to burst out laughing
• teaser....to appear → yokteaser....to suddenly appear
• yoktojer....to die → yoktojer....to drop dead

Expressing the Notion of Fixedness with kyo-

• byaser....to stand → kyobyaser....to stand still
• kexer....to seek → kyokexer....to hound, stalk
• teaxer....to look → kyoteaxer....to stare, glare
• texer....to think → kyotexer....to obsess with, fixate on

Expression the Notion of Randomness with kye-

• der....to say → kyeder....to guess, divine
• per....to per → kyeper....to fluctuate
• poper....to travel → kyepoper....to wander
• napxer....to order → kyenapxer....to scramble
• bier....to take → kyebier....to select

Expressing the Notion of Change with kya-

• baser....to make a move → kyabaser....to shift
• sanxer....to form → kyasanxer....to transform
• xer....to do/make → kyaxer....to change
• napxer....to order → kyanapxer....to shuffle
• dyanxer....to phrase → kyadyanxer....to paraphrase

Expressing Covert Actions with ko-

• ber....to put → kober....to hide
• beler....to carry → kobeler....to smuggle
• bier....to take → kobier....to steal
• ebkyaxer....to exchange → koebkyaxer....to traffic
• exer....to operate → koexer....to spy, operate under cover
• fler....to wish for → kofler....to covet, be jealous of
• apyexer....to attack → koapyexer....to ambush, to sneak-attack
• loexer....to destroy → koloexer....to sabotage

Expressing Actions with Intentionality with ke-

• teaxer....to look → keteaxer....to scan
• vyaxer....to prove → kevyaxer....to experiment
• tier....to learn → ketier....to be interested in

Expressing Lateral Actions with ku-

• buxer....to push → kubuxer....to rebuff, shun
• der....to say → kuder....to comment, remark
• tyoper....to step → kutyoper....to step aside

Expressing Near Actions with yub-

• der....to say → yubder....to intimate, hint
• gexer....to equate → yubgexer....to approximate
• bixer....to pull → yu(b)bixer....to attract, draw near
• teaxer....to look → yubteaxer....to scrutinize, examine

Expressing Distance Actions with yib- (far, tele-)

• drer....to write → yibdrer....to wire, telegraph
• bixer....to pull → yi(b)bixer....to distract
• tuier....to communicate → yibtuier....to telecommunicate
• nyuxer....to deliver → yibnyuxer....to mail, post

Expressing up-, super- with yab-

• ber....to put → ya(b)ber....to raise, to put up
• bixler....to drag → ya(b)bixler....to dredge up
• uper....to come → yabuper....to come up
• nogyanxer....to scale → yabnogyanxer....to scale up, escalate

Expressing down-, sub- with yob-

• ber....to put → yo(b)ber....to lower, put down
• kyaber....to shift → yobkyaxer....to downshift
• musper....to climb → yobmusper....to climb down
• nogyanxer....to scale → yobnogyanxer....to downscale

Expressing in- with yeb-

• ber....to put → ye(b)ber....to insert, put in
• beler....to carry → ye(b)beler....to import
• uzber....to bend → yebuzber....to inflect
• yujber....to close → yebyujber....to enclose, include

Expressing out-, ex-, extra- with oyeb-

• ber....to put → oye(b)ber....to put out, expose
• beler....to carry → oye(b)beler....to export
• uber....to send → oyebuber....to emit, send out
• yujber....to close → oyebyujber....to exclude

Expressing pro-, forward with zay-

• ber....to put → zayber....to advance, put forward
• kexer....to seek → zaykexer....to scout out
• puxer....to throw → zaypuxer....to propel, thrust
• tyoper....to walk → zaytyoper....to progress, to walk forward

Expressing back-, retro-, re- with zoy-

• uber....to send → zoyber....to send back
• kixer....to bend → zoykixer....to reflect
• puxer....to throw → zoypuxer....to repel
• neadper....to track → zoyneadper....to backtrack

Expressing across, trans-, over-, cross- with zey-

• per....to go → zeyper....to cross, transit
• beler....to carry → zeybeler....to transport, convey
• drer....to write → zeydrer....to transcribe
• kyober....to fix → zeykyober....to transfix, transplant
• vyayeker....to check → zeyvyayeker....to crosscheck

Expressing through, per- with zye-

• per....to go → zyeper....to permeate, get through
• kexer....to seek → zyekexer....to rummage, sift through
• drer....to write → zyedrer....to cross out, draw a line through
• iluer....to pour → zyeiluer....to soak
• koper....to sneak → zyekoper....to sneak through

Expressing all over, widely, all about with zya-

• ber....to put → zyaber....to spread
• buer....to give → zyabuer....to distribute
• ijber....to open → zyaijber....to open wide
• nuxer....to pay → zyanuxer....to disburse
• puxer....to throw → zyapuxer....to scatter, cast about

Expressing mid-, center with ze-

• ber....to put → zeber....to balance
• byaser....to stand → zebyaser....to straddle
• der....to say → zeder....to interject
• pyoser....to fall → zepyoser....to sag
• poxer....to stop → zepoxer....to interrupt

Expressing futurity with oj-

• ber....to put → ojber....to put off, postpone
• bier....to take → ojbier....to borrow
• fer....to want → ojfer....to wish, aspire
• texer....to think → ojtexer....to plan
• teater....to see → ojteater....to envision
• vader....to affirm → ojvader....to promise

Expressing past with aj-

• ber....to put → ajber....to pass, relegate to the past
• der....to say → ajder....to evoke, hearken, recount
• embier....to occupy → ajembier....to haunt
• texer....to think → ajtexer....to reminisce, to reflect
• uvtosder....to express sadness → ajuvtosder....to apologize
• nexer....to store → ajnexer....to archive

Expressing present with ej-

• buer....to give → ejbuer....to present
• eser....to exist → ejeser....to attend, to be present
• nuxer....to pay → ejnuxer....to pay cash
• tuer....to inform → ejtuer....to update
• uvtosder....to express sadness → ejuvtosder....to apologize

Expressing a stretched out action with yag- (long)

• beser....to stay → yagbeser....to linger
• bexer....to hold → yagbexer....to conserve, preserve
• daler....to talk → yagdaler....to ramble
• dodaler....to orate → yagdodaler....to harangue
• fer....to want → yagfer....to yearn, pine
• teaxer....to look → yagteaxer....to stare
• fer....to want → yagfer....to yearn, pine

Expressing a brief action with yog- (short)

• drer....to write → yogdrer....to abbreviate
• teaxer....to look → yogteaxer....to glance at
• tujer....to sleep → yogtujer....to snooze, nap
• gobler....to cut → yoggobler....to cut short, truncate

Some Hybrid Prefixes

The prefix kui- is a hybrid of ku- (lateral) and ki- (diagonal)

• per....to go → kuiper....to wobble
• tyoper....to walk → kuityoper....to limp

The prefix zao- is a truncated hybrid of zay- (forward) and zoy- (backwards), eg:

• baser....to move → zaobaser....to rock
• per....to go → zaoper....to alternate
• beler....to carry → kuibeler....to shuttle, ferry
• pyoser....to fall → kuipyoser....to pendulate

The prefix yaob- is a hybrid of yab- (up) and yob- (down). The final b- is assimilated or dropped before a b or p.

• baser....to move → yaobaser....to bob
• per....to go → yaoper....to heave
• beler....to carry → yaobeler....to shuttle, ferry
• peper....to ride → yaopeper....to jounce
• puser....to jump → yaopuser....to hop, bounce

The prefix bui- is a hybrid of bu- (to) and bi- (from), eg:

• drer....to write → buidrer....to correspond
• -er....to x → buier....to trade
• beler....to carry → buibeler....to shuttle, ferry
• xer....to do → buixer....to push and pull, spring
• poper....to travel → buipoper....to travel to and fro, travel round trip

The prefix uiz- is a hybrid of uz- (crooked) and iz- (straight), eg:

• drer....to write → uizdrer....to squiggle
• der....to say → uizder....to equivocate
• baser....to move → uizbaser....to wiggle, to squirm
• per....to go → uizper....to careen, reel
• paser....to move → uizpaser....to swerve, yaw

The prefix zui- is a hybrid of zu- (left) and zi- (right), eg:

• drer....to write → uizdrer....to squiggle
• buxer....to push → zuibuxer....to push around
• baser....to move → zuibaser....to sway, totter
• per....to go → zuiper....to zigzag
• pasler....to shake → zuipasler....to wobble

The prefix aoyeb- is a hybrid of (a)yeb- (in) and oyeb- (out), eg:

• ber....to put → aoyeber....to insert and extract
• tiexer....to breathe → aoyetiexer....to breath in and out
• paper....to fly → aoyepaper....to fly in and out

The prefix aob- is a hybrid of ab- (on) and ob- (off), eg:

• ber....to put → aober....to put on and off
• per....to go → aoper....to get on and off, embark and disembark

The prefix vao- is a hybrid of va- (yes) and vo- (no), eg:

• der....to say → vaoder....to decide
• daler....to talk → vaodaler....to waffle
• duder....to answer → vaoduder....to answer yes or no
• kyaxer....to change → vaokyaxer....to redact
• texer....to think → vaotexer....to deliberate, vacillate

The prefix uij is a hybrid of uj- (end) and ij- (begin)

• ber....to put → uijber....to switch off and on
• daler....to talk → uijdaler....to stutter

The prefix yuij is a hybrid of yuj- (close) and yij- (open)

• ber....to put → yuijber....to open and close, blink

The prefix huim is a hybrid of hum (there) and him (there)

• paper....to fly → huimpaper....to fly here and yon
• per....to go → huimper....to wander
• kexer....to seek → huimkexer....to search high and low

Different Nuances of teaxer with Prefixes

• teaxer....to look, behold, regard
• aybteaxer....to supervise, look over
• ajteaxer....to look back on (retrospect)
• eynteaxer....to squint
• fizteaxer....to respect
• fuzteaxer....to disrespect
• gawteaxer....to review, re-look
• hyuitteaxer....to look at one another
• ibteaxer....to ignore
• igteaxer....to glance, glimpse
• ifteaxer....to marvel at
• izteaxer....to view directly, confront, aim
• jateaxer....to preview
• jeteaxer....to watch, observe
• joteaxer....to review
• kateaxer....to look for
• keteaxer....to scan
• kiteaxer....to look askance
• koteaxer....to peek, spy
• kozyeteaxer....to peep
• kozyoteaxer....to peer
• kuteaxer....to observe
• kyeteaxer....to browse
• kyoteaxer....to stare, glare
• oteaxer....to ignore, overlook
• ufteaxer....to glare, leer
• ugteaxer....to gaze
• yagteaxer....to gape, gawk
• yebteaxer....to inspect
• yibteaxer....to view from afar
• yogteaxer....to glance at
• yokteaxer....to get a glimpse of
• yubteaxer....to examine
• yuibteaxer....to look near and far
• yuzteaxer....to look around, circumspect
• yanteaxer....to view together
• yizteaxer....to look beyond, overlook
• vyateaxer....to investigate, check out
• vyoteaxer....to view wrongly
• zateaxer....to face, confront
• zayteaxer....to look ahead, expect
• zoyteaxer....to look back
• zeyteaxer....to look across
• ziteaxer....to look to the right
• zuteaxer....to look to the left
• zuiteaxer....to look right and left
• zyateaxer....to look all over, survey
• zyeteaxer....to look through, peruse
• zyoteaxer....to squint
• yobteaxer....to look down
• yaobteaxer....to look up and down
• zaoteaxer....to look back and forth
• yabteaxer....to look up
• yubketeaxer....to pry
• uzteaxer....to look indirectly at
• oyebteaxer....to look out
• ojteaxer....to peer into the future
• marteaxer....to star-gaze
• tabteaxer....to autopsy

Modal Verbs

Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are usually followed by the main verb in the infinitive or a subjunctive dependent clause and have to do with wanting, permitting, prohibiting, being able, being unable, needing, being obliged to do something, etc.

Principal Modal Auxiliary Verbs

Mirad has a set of modal auxiliary verbs that can be followed by a main verb in the infinitive mode. This is very much like Enlish modal auxiliary verbs in the following examples:

• I want to go.
• You must wait.
• You may stay.
• I dare say.

Here is a chart showing the main modal auxiliary verbs in Mirad:

Principle Modal Auxiliary Verbs

TYPE	POSITIVE	NEGATIVE
Permission	afer....may ayfer....might	ofer....may not oyfer....might not
Ability	yafer....can	yofer....cannot
Need	efer....need to
Obligation	yefer....must yeyfer....should	oyefer....must not oyeyfer....should not
Desire	fer....want to
Enjoyment	ifer....love to, enjoy iyfer....like to	ufer....hate to uyfer....dislike to
Courage	yifer....dare to	yufer....be afraid to, fear
Liberty	yiver....have a right to, be free to	yuver....be bound to, be supposed to
Expectation	yaker....expect to	yoker....be surprised to
Conation	yeker....try to

These modal auxiliary verbs are often followed by a verbal infinitive, as in the following examples:

• At fe ter.....I want to know.
• Wit yifa yeper.....He dared to enter.
• Yat yafe teater yet.....We can see you.
• Duven et yaka aker?....Did you expect to win?
• Diwe yeku xer ga fi.....Please try to do better.

If the modal verb is in the hypothetical aspect (conditional), then the sense is somewhat mitigated, as in these examples:

• At fe per.....I want to go.
• At fu per.....I would like to go.

• Et yafe aker.....You can win.
• Et yafu aker.....You could win.

• Yet yefe iper.....You must leave.
• Yet yefu iper.....You ought to leave.

Post-y-gliding the stem vowel of the modal verb also reduces the strength, for example:

• At ife et. ....I love you.
• At iyfe et. ....I like you.

• Et yefe iper.....You must leave.
• Et yeyfe iper.....You should leave.

• Iyt yafe aker.....She can win.
• Iyt yayfe aker.....She might win.

• At ufa uda tuz.....I hated that art.
• At uyfa uda tuz.....I disliked that art.

The use of l and r intensify the meaning of the auxiliary verbs, eg:

• Et yuve puer jwe.....You are supposed to arrive on time.
• Et yuvle tepzexer.....You have to pay attention.
• Et yuvre buer nas.....You absolutely must give money.

• At yeka ser yeva.....I tried to be fair.
• At yekla ujber jwa.....I strove to finish early.
• At yekra nixer ga nas.....I struggled (= worked hard)) to earn more money.

• Iyt ife eker zyun.....She loves to play ball.
• Iyt ifla teater et.....She was delighted to see you.
• Iyt ifre teaper him.....She adores visiting here.

Here are some examples showing how these modal verbs are used as auxiliaries:

• Et afe oyeper ay ifeker.....You may go out and play.
• Yat efa tujer.....We needed to sleep.
• Ot ofe mavier him.....One is prohibited to smoke here.
• Mavier him ofwe.....Smoking here is prohibited.
• At ife dyeer.....I love to read.
• Duven et fe yeper?....Do you want to come in?
• At fu teaper et edjub.....I would like to visit you some day.
• It ufaye hyaj teaxwer.....He has always hated being looked at.
• Duven et iyfe per tilami?....Do you like going to bars?
• At uyfe tijer gra jwa.....I dislike waking up too early.
• Et yafe xer hyehos et fu.....You can do whatever you like.
• Et yefer xer ad vyaas.....You must do the right thing.
• Et yeyfe voy daler huuyen azay.....You should not talk so loud.
• At yeyfa ter ga fi.....I should have known better.
• At voy yifu der hyea fuas.....I would not dare say anything bad.
• Von yufu der hos et tesde.....Don't be afraid to say what you mean.
• Et yive dier yevanavdut.....You have a right to ask for a lawyer.
• Yat voy yuvle kyoejer.....We are not bound to stick around.

Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms

All of these modal verbs can be passive, in which case they are "patient-oriented" rather than "subject-oriented." The participial adjective yafa....able is subject-oriented and refers to a person, whereas the passived adjective yafwa....possible is patient-oriented and refers to a thing or event. Here is a chart of the principal modal verbs and corresponding participial adjectives with this subject/object-orientation distinction shown:

Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms

MODAL TYPE	SUBJECT-ORIENTED	SUBJECT-ORIENTED	PATIENT-ORIENTED	PATIENT-ORIENTED
	VERB	ADJECTIVE	VERB	ADJECTIVE
Permission	afer may	afa allowed	afwer be permitted	afwa permissable
Necessity	efer need	efa needful	efwer be necessary	efwa necessary, required
Prohibition	ofer be unallowed	ofa prohibited	ofwer be prohibited	ofwa banned
Possibility	yafer be able	yafa able	yafwer be possible	yafwa possible
Obligation	yefer must	yefa obliged	yefwer be obligatory	yefwa obligatory
Duty	yeyfer should	yeyfa supposed, duty-bound	yeyfwer be supposed	yeyfwa due
Impossibility	yofer be unable	yofa unable	yofwer be impossible	yofwa impossible
Volition	fer want	fa desirous	fwer be desirable	fwa desirable, wanted
Love	ifer love iyfer like	ifa enamored iyfa fond	ifwer be loved iyfwer be liked	ifwa lovable iyfwa likeable
Hate	ufer hate uyfer dislike	ufa averse uyfa displeased	ufwer be hated uyfwer be disliked	ufwa odious unliked
Courage	yifer dare	yifa daring, brave	yifwer be safe	yifwa safe
Fear	yufer be afraid	yufa afraid	yufwer be a danger	yufwa frightening
Joy	iver enjoy	iva glad	ivwer be a joy	ivwa enjoyable
Sorrow	uver be sorry	uva sorry, sad	uvwer be a shame	uvwa regrettable

Examples of subject-oriented forms:

• At se yafa xer hes.....I am capable of doing anything.
• Et ofe teater hia dyezun.....You are not allowed/are prohibited to see this film.
• Duven at afe per hum?....Am I allowed to go there?
• Yat fu ter eta dyun.....We would like to know your name.
• Piti ufe beser be mel.....Fish hate to remain on dry land.
• At ajay ifa dazer.....I once loved to dance.
• Et se iva, at yife der.....You are beautiful, I dare say.
• At yeyfa xer has ga ig.....I should have done it sooner.
• Von yufu; At yupeye.....Fear not; I am coming.
• Et yefe puer ja eymaj.....You must arrive before noon.
• Yet yofe daler je ha dezun.....You people must not talk during the performance.
• Yat yeyfe (= se yeyfa) aker.....We should (= are bound/supposed/due) to win.
• At ive teater et bakser.....I'm glad to see you get better.
• Su iva.....Be happy.
• At uvu (= su uva) teater et iper.....I would be sad to see you leave.

Examples of patient-oriented forms:

• Afwe (= se afwa) mavier him.....It is permissible to smoke here.
• Ofwe (= se ofwa*) puxer fyumul him.....It is prohibited to throw litter here.
• Fwe (= se fwa) van yet dolu.....It is desired that you stop talking.
• Voy yafwe beser him gajob.....It is not possible to remain here any longer.
• Yofwa av at ivteuder.....It was not possible for me to laugh.
• Yefwe van et piu ig.....It is essential that you leave quickly.
• He yeyfwe ober ata tyoyafi?....Is it obligatory to remove my shoes?
• Ga yux efwo.....More help will be needed.
• Yuxren se ufwa xetyen.....Slavery is an odious practice.
• Uvwe van wit oka.....It's a shame that he lost.

*lofwa is used for unwanted for disambiguation purposes.

Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems

Various causative verbs can be formed from modal stems, as shown in the chart below:

Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems

SUBJECT-ORIENTED	PATIENT-ORIENTED
afxer....allow (someone to do sthg.)	afwaxer....permit (something to be done)
efxer....require	efwaxer....necessitate
ofxer....prohibit	ofwaxer....prohibit
yafxer....enable	yafwaxer....make possible
yefxer....oblige	yefwaxer....make obligatory
yofxer....cripple	yofwaxer....disable
yifxer....embolden	yifwaxer....make safe
yufxer....intimidate	yufwaxer....make frightening
ifxer....please	ifwaxer....make pleasant

Creating Modal Verbs and Adjectives with Modal Stem Suffixes

Verb stems can be suffixed with modal participles to produce related modal verbs and adjectives. The first chart shows the modal participles themselves that can be suffixed to verb stems. Subject-oriented forms refer only to people, while patient-oriented forms (ending in -wa) refer only to things.

Modal Suffixes

Subject-oriented	Patient-oriented
-yafa....able to X, -able	-yafwa....possible to X
-yofa....unable to X	-yofwa....impossible to X
-ifa....fond of Xing, Xophile	-ifwa....enjoyable to X
-ufa....averse to Xing, Xophobic	-ufwa....unenjoyable to X
-yika....hard of Xing	-yikwa....hard to X
-yuka....comfortable/easy Xing	-yukwa....easy to X
-yaka....expecting to X	yakwa....expected/likely to X
-efa....in need of Xing	-efwa....necessary to X
-yefa....obliged to X	-yefwa....obligatory/due to X
-yufa....afraid of Xing	-yufwa....frightening to X

This table shows some of these modal suffixes applied to actual verb and noun stems:

Modals and Orientation

ORIENTATION	POSITIVE ADJECTIVE	POSITIVE VERB	NEGATIVE ADJECTIVE	NEGATIVE VERB
Subject	teatyafa able to see, sighted	teatyafer be able to see	teatyofa blind	teatyofer be blind
Patient	teatyafwa visible	teatyafwer be visible	teatyofwa invisible	teatyofwer be invisible
Subject	teetyafa able to hear, hearing	teetyafer be able to hear	teetyofa deaf	teatyofer be deaf
Patient	teetyafwa audible	teetyafwer be audible	teeyofwa inaudible	teeyofwer be inaudiable
Subject	dalyafa able to speak	dalyafer be able to speak	dalyofa mute, dumb	dalyofer be mute, dumb
Subject	doabifa patriotic	doabifer be patriotic	doabufa rebellious	doabufer rebel
Subject	tosyafa sensitive	tosyafer be able to feel	tosyofa insensitive	tosyofer be numbed
Patient	tayotyafwa palpable	tayotyafwer be palpable	tayotyofwa numb	tayotyofwer be impalbable, numb
Patient	testyukwa easy to understand	testyukwaxer make easily understood	testyikwa hard to understand	testyikwaxer make hard to understand
Subject	tudyaka pregnant, expecting	tudyaker be expecting
Patient	mamilyakwa likely to rain	mamilyakwer to be expected to rain	mamilyokwa unlikely to rain	mamilyokwer to be unlikely to rain
Subject	tilefa thirsty	tilefer be thirsty
Subject	telefa hungry	telefer be hungry
Patient	tejefwa vital	tejefwer be vital
Subject	tujefa sleepy	tujefer be sleepy
Subject	nasefa poor, needy	nasefer be needy
Subject	dudyefa accountable, responsible	dudyefer be responsible
Patient	texiyefwa noteworthy	texiyefwer be noteworthy

Sensing Verbs

Verbs involving the senses, such as sight or hearing, follow a similar pattern, as the following chart shows:

Sensing Verbs

TYPE	teab....eye teata....visual	teeb....ear teeta....audial	teib....nose teita....olfactory	teub....mouth teuta....gustatory	tayob....skin tayota....tactile
Receptive Active	teater see	teeter hear	teiter smell	teuter taste	tayoter feel
Receptive Passive	teatwer be seen	teetwer be heard	teitwer be smelled	teutwer be tasted	tayotwer be felt
Stative	teaser seem	teeser sound	teiser smell	teuser taste	tayoser feel
Dynamic Active	teaxer look at	teexer listen	teixer sniff	teuxer taste	tayoxer touch
Dynamic Passive	teaxwer be looked at	teexwer be listened to	teixwer be sniffed	teuxwer be tasted	tayoxwer be touched
Causative Active	teatuer show	teetuer make hear	teixuer make smell	teuxuer offer a taste	tayoxuer make feel
Causative Passive	teatuwer be shown	teetuwer be made to hear	teituwer be made to smell	teutuwer be given a taste	tayotuwer be made to feel
Inchoative Active	teatier perceive, catch sight of	teetier catch the sound of	teitier get a whiff of	teutuer get a taste of	tayotier get the sensation of
Inchoative Passive	teatiwer be perceived	teetiwer be heard	teitiwer be whiffed	teutiwer be tasted	tayotiwer be felt
Negative-Modal Patient-oriented Stative	teatyofer be blind	teetyofer be deaf	teityofer be unable to smell	teityofer be unable to taste	tayotyofer be insensitive
Negative-Modal Patient-oriented Stative	teatyofwer be invisible	teetyofwer be inaudible	teityofwer be undetectable odorwise	teityofwer be insipid	tayotyofwer be undetectable by touch
Negative-Modal Patient-oriented Causative	teatyofxer blind	teetyofxer deafen	teityofxer desensitize to smell	teutyofxer desensitize to taste	tayotyofxer desensitize
Negative-Modal Patient-oriented Causative	teatyofwaxer make invisible	teetyofwaxer make inaudible	teityofwaxer make odorless	teutyofwaxer render tasteless	tayotyofwaxer numb

Examples of usage:

• At teatyofxwa bey ha mani.....I was blinded by the lights.
• Ha xeus sa teetyofxyea.....The noise was deafening.
• Hia tit se gla teatiyafa.....This pupil is very perceptive.
• Hua bekil se teityofwa.....That medicine is odorless (impossible to smell).
• Teatyofwaxu ha vyuni.....Make the spots invisible.
• Ha magmeb yonprex tayotyafwa zya ha mir.....The volcano eruption could be felt throughout the world.

Frequentative Verbs

Frequentative verbs or repetitive action verbs can be formed with the infix -eg- placed between the verb stem and verb ending, eg.:

Frequentative Verbs

NORMAL	FREQUENTATIVE
pyaser....jump	pyaseger....bounce
paper....fly	papeger....flitter
kobirer....steal	kobireger....pilfer
braser....shake	braseger....vibrate
brasea....shaking	brasegea....vibrating

Hybridized Verbs

Verbs that involve motion directions that change back and forth can be formed by hybridizing the stem vowel or the vowel of the vectorial prefix. Here are some examples:

Frequentative Verbs

FIRST DIRECTION	SECOND DIRECTION	HYBRIDIZED DIRECTION
pyaser....jump	pyoser....fall	pyaoser....bounce, undulate
buer....give	bier....take	buier....exchange
nuer....furnish	nier....consume	nuier....trade
tuer....inform	tier....learn	tuier....communicate
yaper....ascend	yoper....descend	yaoper....go up and down
zayper....go forward	zoyper....go back	zaoper....vacillate
vader....affirm	voder....deny	vaoder....decide
yijber....open	yujber....close	uijber....valve
baser....stir	boser....be still	baoser....vibrate

Biradical Verbs

There are a few verbs in Mirad which are composed of two verb roots, called biradical verbs. Sometimes the last letter of the first verb root gets dropped. Here are a few:

Biradical Verbs

Root 1	Root 2	Biradical Verb
kex-....to seek	bi-....to take	kebier....to choose
kox-....to hide	bi-....to take	kobier....to steal
kox-....to hide	p-....to go	koper....to sneak
kox-....to hide	geldr-....to copy	kogeldrer....to plagiarize
kox-....to hide	f-....to want	kofer....to covet
kax-....to reveal	d-....to say	kader....to disclose
kax-....to reveal	teax-....to look	kateaxer....to locate
teat-....to see	p-....to go	teaper....to visit
teat-....to see	d-....to tell	teader....to testify
tax-....to remember	dr-....to write	taxdrer....to record
teat-....to see	yof-....to be unable	teatyofer....to be blind
teet-....to hear	dr-....to write	teedrer....to report
teet-....to hear	p-....to go	teeper....to attend
teet-....to hear	tu-....to inform	teetuer....to notify
teet-....to hear	yik-....have a hard time	teetyiker....to strain to hear
teet-....to hear	yof-....to be unable	teetyofer....to be deaf
tes-....to mean	d-....to say	tesder....to explain
tes-....to mean	t-....to know	tester....to understand

Expressing Habitual Actions and States

Mirad uses the term gel jubyen (as a habit) to express a verb reflecting habitual action, eg:

• At tijeya be yiwa jwobi gel jubyen.....I used to wake up at 9 o'clock. (Lit. I was waking up at 9 o'clock as a habit.).

The term hyujod....one another occasion (or be aj....in the past) is use to express once (upon a time), eg:

• At sa tuxut hyujod (~ be aj) sa tuxut. ....I once was a teacher.

The term vyabxelay (routinely) can also be used, eg:

• Yat eke duz yuz bi ha doym vyabxelay.....We play music around town routinely.

Expressing an Immediate Past

To express an immediate past, such as in the sentence "We have just gotten married.", Mirad uses the adverb ejnay (newly) much like the word just in English:

• Yat tadsaye ejnay.....We have just gotten married.
• Ejnay tadxwa.....Just married.
• Wit dokebiwa ejnay.....He was just elected.
• At ujbaya yex ejnay hoj iyt yebupa.....I had just finished work when she came in.

Verb Predicate Types

Mirad verb predicates can be classified as follows:

• Voice

• Active (The subject is the doer of the action)
• Passive (The subject is the receiver of the action)
• Middle (The subject is both the agent and patient)
• Reflexive (The subject is also the patient.)
• Reciprocal (Plural subjects interact.)

• Stativity

• Stative (Does not involve action)
• Dynamic (Action is involved)

• Valency

• Impersonal (There is no subject)
• Transitive (There is an object)
• Intransitive (There is no object)
• Auto-transitive (The subject is a patient and there is no agent)
• Anti-transitive (There is the patient but an agent is assumed)
• Causative (Subject causes an action to be performed)
• Copula (X is Y)

• Other

• Modal (can, must, should, wants to...)
• Auxiliary (help to, hope to, prepare to + verb)
• Motion (run, go, ride...)
• Communication (say, answer, claim that...)
• Gesture (put, shake, hit...)
• State/Stative (be, become, live, be born...)
• Action/Dynamic (do, act, make)

Verb Predicate Types

VOICE	STATIVITY	VALENCY	EXAMPLE
active	stative	impersonal, -agent, -object	Mamilo zajub.....It will rain tomorrow.
active	stative	impersonal, -agent, +complement	Sa gla oma.....It was very cold.
active	stative	impersonal, +subject	Ese het be ha mes.....There is someone at the door.
active	stative	copula, subject + noun/adjective complement	Et se ata twud.....You are my son. At aseye epyextipa.....I am becoming angry.
middle	stative	auto-transitive, +subject=patient -agent -object	Iyt toja.....She died
middle	stative	auto-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object	Ha mes yija.....The door opened.
active	stative	intransitive, +subject -object	Et bokso.....You will get sick.
active	stative	transitive, sense, +subject +object	At teate et.....I see you.
active	stative	transitive, modal, +subject +verb complement	At fe per.....I want to go.
active	stative	intransitive, subject-oriented modal, -subject +verb complement	Yofwe teater.....It is impossible to see.
passive	stative	patient-oriented modal, +subject	Mamil yakwe.....Rain is expected.
middle	dynamic	anti-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object	Ha mes yijpa.....The door came open.
active	dynamic	intransitive, +subject -object	Ha fab pyosa.....The tree fell.
active	dynamic	transitive, +subject +-object	Yit pyoxa ha fab.....They felled the tree.
passive	dynamic	intransitive, +subject, -object	Ha fabi pyoxwa.....The trees were felled.
active	dynamic	transitive, +subject, +object	Obu eta tef.....Take your hat off.
active	dynamic	ditransitive, +subject, +object +object	Von et buu iyt ha nas.....Don't give her the money.
active	dynamic	transitive, motion, +subject, +destination/origin	Yupu ha mees.....Approach the bench. Pu tam!....Go home! (you implied)
active	dynamic	causative, +subject +object, +agent	At tayegobluxo Jon.....I will get my hair cut by John.
passive	dynamic	causative, +subject +object, +agent	At tayegobluxwo.....I will get my hair cut.
active	dynamic	auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object	Yuxu at xer his.....Help me do this.
passive	dynamic	auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object	At tuxwa eker duz.....I was taught to play music.
middle	dynamic	reflexive, +subject = patient, -object	Iyt uttojba.....She killed herself.
active	dynamic	reciprocal, +subjects = patients	Yit voy hyuitdale gaj.....They don't talk to one another anymore.

Prepositions are words that connect and show a relationship between a noun or noun phrase and the rest of the sentence. In Mirad, prepositions are simple monosyllables or phrases. Prepositions, as in English, are positioned before the noun or noun phrase they connect.

Simple Prepositions

In Mirad, there are single-word and multi-word prepositions. Single-word prepositions are called simple propositions.

Here is a chart of simple prepositions. Most are spatial, but some are temporal, relational, or mathematical.

Simple Prepositions

POSITIVE	NEUTRAL	NEGATIVE
SPATIAL
ab....on, upon	eb....between	ob....off, off of
ayb....over, above	eyb....among, amid	oyb....under, below
bu....to	be....at	bi....from, of
byu....as far as, up to	bey....by, via	byi....since, starting with
ub....toward		ib....away from
za....in front of	ze....at the middle of	zo....behind, in back of
zya....throughout	zye....through
zu....(to the) left (of)	zey....across	zi....(to the) right (of)
TEMPORAL
ja....before	je....during, while	jo....after lojo....no later than, by
ju....until		ji....since
RELATIONAL
bay....with	bey....by, via, with	boy....without
av....for	vyel....than, as, compared to, about	ov....against
ayv....about		oyv....despite
ay....and	ey....or oey....nor	oy....but, except
MATHEMATICAL
ge....equal to		oge....unequal to
gab....plus, +	gaob....plus or minus	gob....minus, -
gal....times, ×	gel....like ogel....unlike	gol....divided by, ÷
gar....to the power of, ˆ		gor....to the root of, √

The most versatile and useful preposition is be, which means at as a general locative when used literally, but is used before many nouns and noun phrases when the meaning is idiomatic. Some examples follow:

• Yat se be tam.....We are at home. (literal, general locative)
• Yat se be dropek.....We are at war. (idiomatic)
• At teata et be yibsin.....I saw you on television. (idiomatic)
• Be Ejna York ese mamyabtomi.....In New York, there are skyscrapers. (general locative)

The preposition bi can mean of or from. Here are some examples:

• Hus se tam bi ifron.....That is a house of worship.
• At tyopa bi ha nam bu ata pur.....I walked from the store to my car.
• Bi him bu hyajob.....From here to eternity.
• Ha tajnem bi Tom se him.....Tom's birthplace is here.
• His sa ha gwaifwa tuzun bi eta teyd.....This was your mother's favorite piece of art.

As you can see above, bi is used to form the possessive form of nouns and names.

Examples showing how single-word prepositions are used:

• Ha dyes se ab ha sem.....The book is on the table.
• Von pyosu ob ha abtamas!....Don't fall off the roof!
• Ha pati papa ayb ata tam.....The birds flew over my house.
• It kosa oyb ha yagsim.....He hid under the bench.
• Simbiu eb hut ay at.....Take a seat between that person and me.
• Yat teje eyb fiati.....We live among good people.
• Duhos se nax bi pop bu ay bi Boston?....What is the cost of a trip to and from Boston?
• His se ifek bi kyen.....This is a game of luck.
• Duven et sa be hua duzun zomoj?....Were you at that concert last night?
• Yit se embwa be ha zenod bi ha mapil.....We are positioned at the hub of this storm.
• Iyt tyopa byu ha mis.....She walked up to/as far as the door.
• Ha twob tojbwa bey goblar.....The man was killed with/by a knife.
• Et xu ga fiay ser bay at vyel boy at.....You would do better to be with me than without me.
• Teaxu ib ha amar.....Look away from the sun.
• Von teaxu iz ub ha man.....Don't look directly toward the light.
• Iyt simpa za at. ....She sat in front of me.
• Et yeyfe simbier zo hua toyb.....You should sit in back of that woman.
• Embu has zu ha mis.....Put it to the left of the door.
• At simpo zi et.....I will sit to the right of you.
• Ha pat besa ze ha tim.....The bird stayed in the middle of the room.
• Mil upeye zye ha yijun.....Water is coming through the opening.
• Bikiu je pen zey ha domep......Take care when going across the street.
• Eso ivan zya ha mir.....There will be happiness throughout the world.
• His xwo ja zajub. ....This will happen before tomorrow.
• Esa mapil je ha moj.....There was a storm during the night.
• Ju zamaj.....Until tomorrow morning.
• At voy teataye et ji zoyejub.....I have not seen you since last week.
• Diwe xu hes av at.....Please do something for me.
• Hia dyes se ayv dalzeyntun.....This book is about linguistics.
• Hia dyen se din vyel ewa fiuti.....This book is a story about two lovers.
• Datan se ga fia vyel nas.....Friendship is better than money.
• Hos se ge fua vyel has hu yat xoa zojab.....Nothing is as bad as what we underwent last year.
• Yit yexeya ov yat.....They were working against us.
• Ha vakdibut dopoxa at oyv ata azovdeyni.....The police officer arrested me despite my protests.
• Et ay Bob yeyfe ser dati.....You and Bob should be friends.
• Duhot ako, et ey at?....Who will win, you or I?
• Hyat oy hwut ta ha dud.....Everyone but that guy knew the answer.
• Et voy se gel at.....You are not like me.
• Et se hyagla ogel at.....You are totally unlike me.
• E gab e gese u.....Two plus two equals four.
• U gob e gese e.....Four minus two equals two.
• E gal e gese u.....Two times two equals four.
• E gol e gese a.....Two divided by two equals one.
• U gar e gese asya.....Four squared (4²) equals sixteen. (Lit: Four to the power of two...)
• Alya gor e gese u.....The square root (√16) of sixteen is four. (Lit: Sixteen to the minus power of two...)

Phrasal Prepositions

Some prepositions involve multiple word expressions, that is, phrasal prepositions.

Phrasal Prepositions Using Adverbs

There are certain directional adverbs that can play a part in forming phrasal prepositions, but cannot act as prepositions in and of themselves:

Adverbs Used in Phrasal Prepositions

yub....near		yib....far
iz....directly, straight		uz....indirectly, roundabout
yab....up	yeb....in oyeb....out	yob....down
yiz....beyond	yez....along, flush	yuz....around
zay....forward, ahead		zoy....back

The next chart lists some phrasal prepositions using the above adverbs:

Phrasal Prepositions Using Adverbs

PHRASAL PREPOSITION	EXAMPLE
yub bu....near to, close to	At fe tujer yub bu et.....I want to sleep close to you.
yib bi....far from	Ha amar se yib bi ha imer.....The sun is far from the earth.
yab bu....up to	It fu paper yab bu ha mam.....He would like to fly up to the sky.
yab bi....up from	Su yab bi ha sim.....Get up from the bed.
yab bey....up (by way of)	Yat tyoyapo yab bey ha meab.....We will walk up the hill.
yab be....up at	Ha yipet kaxwa yab be ha tam.....The cat was found up at the house.
yob bu....down to	Igpu yob bu ha obmos.....Run down to the cellar.
yob bi....down from	Ha tat upa yob bi ha mam.....The angel came down from the sky.
yob bey....down (by way of)	Iyt igtyoyapa yob bey ha meab.....She ran down the hill.
yob be....down at	Ha dyes kaxwa yob be ha obem.....The book was found down at the bottom.
yob ab....down at	Has kaxwa yob ab eta oybmos.....It was found down on your floor.
yeb be....in, inside	Eta teyd se yeb be ha tam.....Your mother is in(side) the house.
yeb bu....into	It pyasa yeb bu ha mip.....He jumped into the river.
yeb bi....in from	Upu yeb bi ha oma oyebem.....Come in from the cold outdoors.
yez bay....along with, flush with	Upu yez bay at.....Come along with me.
oyeb be....out in/at	Ha tudi sa oyeb be ha zodeym.....The children were out in the backyard.
oyeb bi....out from	Yepu oyeb bi ha om.....Come in out from the cold.
oyeb bu....out to	Yat fu peper oyeb bu ha meim.....We'd like to ride out to the countryside.
iz bu....straight to	Pu iz bu fyomir! ....Go straight to hell!
iz zoy bi....right back from	It upu iz zoy bi ha yexim.....He came right back from the office.
zay bu....on to, forth to, ahead to	Ha bixpur popa zay bu zona doym.....The train traveled on to the next town.
zey bi....across from	At simbeseya zey bi et.....I was sitting across from you.
zoy bi....back from	At se zoy bi ha yexim.....I am back from the office.
zoy bu....back to	Pu zoy bu ha nam.....Go back to the store.
zoy be....back at	Duven et se zoy be tam?....Are you back at home?

Some simple prepositions can also be combined into prepositional phrases:

• Ha yipet yapra ab bu ha abtamas.....The cat climbed onto the roof.
• He yepet pyosa ob bi ha sem.....The dog fell off (from) the chair.
• Pu zey bu ha hyua kum bi ha domep.....Go across to the other side of the street.
• At simbeseya iz zey bi et.....I was sitting just across from you.

Phrasal Prepositions Using Spatial Nouns

The following chart shows how prepositions and directional adverbs can be joined with the spatial ending -(e)m meaning place (or others) to be form spatial nouns, which, in turn, can be used in idiomatic prepositional phrases:

Spatial Nouns Built on Prepositions or Adverbs

ab....on	abem....top abned....upper surface abmas....roof
eb....between	ebem....interstice ebjob....interval ebnod....intersection ebmas....partition
ob....off	obem....bottom obned....lower surface obmas....foundation
ayb....above	aybem....area above aybmas....ceiling
oyb....below	oybem....area below oybmas....floor
eyb....among	eybem....midst
yab....up	yabem....upstairs, upper area yabneg....top level
yob....down	yobem....downstairs, lower area yobneg....bottom level
yeb....in	yebem....inside, interior, indoors yebnig....inner space
oyeb....out	yobem....outside, exterior, outdoors
za....in front of	zam....front, foreground zan....face
ze....in the middle of	zem....middle zenod....center, hub zen....center zenad....median
zo....behind	zom....back, rear, background
zi....right	zim....right area zikum....left side ziizon....right direction imer....east
zu....left	zum....left area zukum....left side zuizon....left direction umer....west
iz....straight	izmep....direct route iznad....vector izon....direction
uz....indirectly	uzmep....detour uznad....curve uzon....deviation
yub....near	yubem....vicinity yubkum....near side yubaj....recent past
yib....far	yibem....distance yibkum....far side yibnod....pole yiboj....distant future
yuz....around	yuzem....perifery yuznad....perimeter yuznig....environment
yiz....beyond	yizem....area beyond yiznod....extremity

The following chart shows phrasal prepositions that can be created with the use of the spatial nouns in the previous section or other nouns. These phrases are considered idiomatic, because they are abbreviated by the omission of the definite article ha in front of the noun:

Idiomatic Phrasal Prepositions

AT SOMEWHERE	TO SOMEWHERE	FROM SOMEWHERE
be abem bi....at the top of	bu abem bi....to the top of	bi abem bi....from the top of
be obem bi....at the bottom of	bu obem bi....to the bottom of	bi obem bi....from the top of
be ebem bi....in the area between	bu ebem bi....to the area between	bi ebem bi....from the area between
be aybem bi....above, over	bu aybem bi....to the area above	bi aybem bi....from the area above
be oybem bi....below, under	bu oybem bi....to the area below	bi oybem bi....from the area below
be eybem bi....amid	zye eybem bi....through the midst of	bi eybem bi....from the midst of
be zam bi....at the front of	bu zam bi....to the front of	bi zam bi....from the front of
be zem bi....at the middle of	bu zem bi....to the middle of	bi zem bi....from the middle of
be zom bi....at the back of	bu zom bi....to the back of	bi zom bi....from the back of
be zim bi....at the right of	bu zim bi....to the right of	bi zim bi....from the right of
be zum bi....at the left of	bu zum bi....to the left of	bi zum bi....from the left of
be yubem bi....in the vicinity of	bu yubem bi....to the vicinity of	bi yubem bi....from the vicinity of
be yibem bi....at a distance from	bey azon bi....by dint of	be avon bi....in favor of
be ubem bi....in the direction of	bay ux bi....with assistance from	be byux bay....in touch with
be yabem bi....in the upper reaches of	be vyen bu....in relation to	doytaxwa bay....associated with
be yobem bi....in the bottom area of	be ned bi....on the level of	be mep bu....on the way to, en route
be yebem bi....on the inside of, inside	be oyebem bi....on the outside of, outside	bu oyebem bi....to the exterior of
bey mep bi....by way of, via	be kum bi....beside, at the side of	be ij bi....at the start of
be uj bi....at the end of	bey uxun bi....by means of	be kunad bi....at the edge of
be nod bi....at the point of	be yebem bi....at the interior of, inside	be oyebem bi....at the exterior of, outside
be nad bay....in line with	be uznod bi....alongside	be tes bi....in the sense of
be teas bi....in the guise of	be san bi....in the form of	be yanx bi....in conjunction with
be bol bi....in support of	be gab bu....in addition to	be dyun bi....in the name of
be avson bi....on behalf of	be vyeson bi....on the subject of	bay yux bi....with the aid of

Separable Verb Prefixes

Verbal prefixes that formed from prepositions and adverbs can usually be "unpacked", that is, treated as separate words. This works like separable verbs in German. The following table demonstrates how that works:

Separable Verb Prefixes

VERB-BOUND	UNPACKED	ENGLISH
Zyulmap yuzpa yata tam.	Zyulmap pa yuz bi yata tam.	The tornado circled/went around our house. (= went around)
Ha yux bi yams yeyfe yobnogxwer.	Ha yux bi cal yeyfe nogxwer yob.	The use of carbon should be downscaled. (= scaled down)
Yat zaybuxo hia dovyabdren.	Yat buxo hia dovyabdren zay.	We shall advance this legislation. (= push forward)

Types of Conjunctions

Conjunctions are words that join or introduce clauses. There are two major types of conjunctions, with some minor categories, noted below:

1. Coordinating Conjunctions

• Simple Linking Conjunctions, such as and, or, but
• Correlative Conjunctions, such as either...or, neither...or, both...and
• Adverbial Coordinating Conjunctions, such as then, also, therefore

2. Subordinating Conjunctions

• Complementizing Conjunctions, such as that, if, whether, lest
• Relative Conjunctions, such as as, when, because, while

Coordinating Conjunctions

Mirad has three types of coordinating conjunctions, as shown in the following charts:

Simple Linking Conjunctions

Simple Linking Conjunctions

CONJUNCTION	EXAMPLE
ay....and	At oveko ay at ako. I will compete and I will win.
ey....or	Bosu ey at tuyapyexo et. Be still or I will spank you.
oy....but	It yeka oy it oka. He tried but he lost.
oey....nor	At voy tilo oey at telo. I shall not drink, nor shall I eat.
bayhus....yet	At ayse hyas at fe, bayhus at voy se iva. I have everything I want, yet I'm not happy.
avhus....so	Ha amar yapaye, avhus et yefe sumpier. The sun has risen, so you must get up out of bed.

Correlative Coordinating Conjunctions

The following conjunctions come in pairs:

Correlative Coordinating Conjunctions

CONJUNCTION	EXAMPLE
hyaewa...ay....both...and	At hyaewa dyede ay dre Mirad. I both read and write Mirad.
hyeawa...ey....either...or	Et yafe hyeawa beser ey pier. Se eta kebiun. You can either stay or leave. It's your choice.
hyoawa...oey....neither...nor	Yat hyoawa move oey tile. We neither smoke nor drink.
voy hyawa...oy (gay)....not only...but (also)	At voy hyawa deuze oy gay at daze. I not only sing but also I dance.
ven....avhus....if...then	Ven et te ha dud, avhus du has. If you know the answer, then say it.
ha...ha....the...the	Ha ga et tixe, ha ga et akujo. The more you study, the more you'll succeed.
ga yukay...vyel....rather...than	At oku ga yukay vyel vyoeker. I'd rather lose than cheat.
ji van...iz huj....no sooner...than	Ji van ha dezut yepa, iz huj ha hyaydeux ija. No sooner did the actor enter than the applause began.
huugla...van....so/such...that	Ha map sa huugla aza van ha fab pyoxwa. The wind was so strong that the tree was felled.
ven...ey (voy)....whether...or (not)	Ven et te is ey voy, at tadioye. Whether you know it or not, I am about to get married.

Adverbial Coordinating Conjunctions

Some grammars call these conjunctive adverbs:

Adverbial Coordinating Conjunctions

CONJUNCTION	EXAMPLE
jo hus / joy then, next, after that	Yat deuza, jo hus hyat daza. We sang, then everyone danced.
je hus / jey meanwhile	Je hus, at ujba hyas. Meanwhile, I finished everything.
av hus so, therefore	It vuda at, av hus at pia. He insulted me, so I left.
(gey) ov hus nevertheless, even so, despite that, yet, however	At yexa kyotepay, ov hus, at ujoka. I work diligently, yet I failed.
gel hus / gelay likewise, also, similarly	At daze. Gel hus, at deuze. You dance; likewise, I sing.
hyiyen / geyen in the same way, likewise	Yit xa fi; hyiyen, et xo gay fi. They did well; in the same way, you will too.
ogel hus / ogelay otherwise, else	Du hes, ogel hus, piu. Say something, otherwise, leave.
gay also	Et yeka; gay, et ujaka! You tried; also, you succeeded!
be nem (bi hus) instead (of that)	Hyot fida iyt; be nem bi hus, yit fuda iyt. Nobody praised her; instead, they badmouthed her.
huyen thus, in that way	Tixu jestay; huyen, et ujako. Study diligently; in that way, you'll succeed.
husav for that reason, so, therefore	At voy ifeyie has; husav, at pio. I'm not enjoying it, so I will leave.
vray as a matter of fact, actually, in fact	Vray, et se vyasa. In fact, you're right.
gel jos consequently, as a consequence	It baksa; gel jos, it toja. He got sick; as a consequence, he died.
gel xin as a result	At voy tixa; gel xin, at okuja. At didn't study; as a result, I failed.
ga vyel hus moreover, what's more	Mamila. Ga vyel hus, esa mamxeus. It rained. Moreover, there was thunder.
be hyua duni in other words	At voy da ha vyan; be hyua duni, at vyoda. It did not tell the truth; in other words, I lied.
jey meanwhile, in the meantime	Ha toboti xeya gla xeus; jey, at jesa tixer. The children were making a lot of noise; meanwhile, I continued to study.
ovay on the contrary	Ha tam voy se aga; ovay, has se gle oga. The house is not big; on the contrary, it's rather small.
bi hyua teasgun on the other hand	At voy deuze. Bi byua teagun, at eke duzar. I don't sing. On the other hand, I play a musical instrument.
gey bay hus still, even so	Voy esa duz, gey bay hus, ha xej sa ifxea. There was no music. Even so, the event was entertaining.
ujnay finally, in the end	Unjnay, hyoa fus xwa. In the end, nothing bad happened.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating Conjunctions introduce three types of dependent or subordinate clauses:

1. Adjectival subordinate clauses (also called relative clauses)

• He is the guy that earned the most this year. The subordinate clause modifies a noun in the main clause. Adjectival clauses are introduced in Mirad by the relative complementizer ho. Relative clauses are discussed in the Relative Clauses section of the chapter on Verbs.

2. Nominal subordinate clauses (also called factive clauses)

• I knew that she would come. The subordinate clause is the object or complement of a verb in the main clause. Nominal subordinate clauses are introduced by one of the factive complementizers van, ven, or von, depending on whether the subordinate clause is positive, conditional, or negative.

3. Adverbial subordinate clauses (also called circumstantial clauses).

• Did you see where they went?. The subordinate clause is an adverbial clause modifying a verb in the main clause for time, place, manner, and other circumstances. Adverbial subordinate clauses are introduced by relative deictic adverbs like hom....where, hoj....when, and hosav....why.

Complementizers

The complementizers above are part of an overall scheme. In the chart below, the six complementizers act:

• as a clause linker, where the complementizer introduces a clause that is a statement of FACT or CONDITION, or
• as a sentence introducer, where the complementizer introduces a sentence that is a command/wish, a prohibition, or a yes-no question. Some of these complementizers can act in either or both roles. In actuality, all of the complementizers introduce or link a subordinate clause; it's just that in some cases, the main clause is left unexpressed.

Complementizers

TYPE	COMPLEMENTIZER	CLAUSE LINKER	SENTENCE INTRODUCER
Positive / Hortative	van	that, the fact that	May....(something happen), Let....(something happen)
Conditional	ven	if, whether	--
Negative / Prohibitive	von	lest, that...not	Don't
Anti-Conditional	oven	unless	--
Interrogative	Duven...?	--	Is it true that, say whether..., do(es)?
Relative	ho	that, which, who(m)	--

Examples of these conjunctions linking a main and subordinate clause:

• At ta van et upo.....I knew that you would come. (FACTIVE)
• At xa is av van et testu.....I did it so that you would understand.
• At voy ta ven et upo.....I did not know whether you would come. (CONDITIONAL)
• Ven et te ha dud, du has.....If you know the answer, say it. (CONDITIONAL)
• At yufa von et upu.....I feared lest you might come. (PROHIBITIVE)
• At voy upo oven et upo gay.....I will not come unless you come, too. (ANTI-CONDITIONAL)
• At fe teater ha tob ho xa his.....I want to see the man who did this. (RELATIVE)
• At fe teater hoa tob xa his.....I want to see which man did this.
• Iyt akeye oyv van iyt bayse yofi.....She is winning despite the fact that she has disabilities.

Example of these conjunctions introducing different types of sentences:

• Van yat fyadilu.....Let us pray. (Hortative, i.e., A WISH)
• Van yit teliu avol!....Let them eat bread.
• Van ha edweb yagteju.....May the king live long.
• Duven et te ha dud?....Do you know the answer? (YES/NO QUESTION)
• Duven et se tadxwa.....Are you are married. (SAY WHETHER...)
• Von (et) yufu.....Don't (you) be afraid. (Prohibitive, i.e., AN INJUNCTION)
• Von hus xwu.....Let that not happen. (NEGATIVE HORTATIVE)

The sentence-initial interrogative complementizer Duven (Is it true that?) is used to introduce a yes/no question. The word can be analyzed as a command meaning Say whether... where Say... is the main clause in the imperative mood.

• Duven et se tadokyayt?....Are you a widow? (= Say whether you are...).

Av van + a predicate in the hypothetical mood expresses a "so that, in order that" clause, eg.:

• At uzba ata teb av van at yafu teater hos xowe^*.....I turned my head so that I could see what was about to happen.

Using the negative complementizer, von, the above sentence could be rephrased as:

• At uzba ata teb av von at teatu hos xowe.....I turned my head so that I wouldn't see what was about to happen.

Since the subject is the same in both clauses, the sentence could be expressed more easily with an infinitive:

• At uzba ata teb av (~ ov) teater hos xowe.....I turned my head so as (not) to see what was about to happen.

* xowe means is about to happen/be done. Unlike English, there is no relative sequencing of tenses in conjoined clauses. "I knew she would come." is rendered in Mirad with direct sequences of tenses, i.e. as "I knew that she will come." Also, unlike English, the "that" conjunction cannot be left out: At ta van iyt upo.

Conjunctions with the subordinate conjunctions van/ven/von

Conjunctions introducing nominal subordinate clauses consist of a preposition followed by the positive complementizer van, the conditional complementizer ven, or the negative complementizer von. English can use a bare preposition as a conjunction, as in the sentence "He will grow up before you notice it." However, Mirad requires the complementizer, much as in French, where "avant" (before) must be accompanied by "que" when followed by a clause ("Il se grandira avant que tu ne le remarques.") Here is a chart showing the most important of these conjunctions:

Subordinating conjunctions with van and ven

CONJUNCTION	EXAMPLE
ja van before	Du hay ja van et pio. Say hi before you leave.
je van while, as long as	Je van at so him, at xo gle yex av et. While I'm here, I'll do some work for you.
jo van after	At buo et has jo van et nuso. I will give it to you after you pay.
ojo van by the time	Ojo et puo him, at piayo. By the time you get here, I will have departed.
ju van until	Yat voy ijo ju van et puo him. We won't start until you get here.
ji van since	At voy teataya huyenas ji van et sa hum. I had not seen such a thing since you were there.
gey ven even if	Gey ven et yontexe, at bolo et. Even if you disagree, I'll support you.
gel ven as if	Yat yeyfe axler gel ven yat teata hyos. We should act as if we saw nothing.
gey ov van even though, though	Gey ov van ha pansin sa gra yaga, at ifia has. Even though the movie was too long, I enjoyed it.
ov van (al)though, despite the fact that	At po ov van at voy fe. I'll go, although I don't want to.
av van so (that)	It utifbua av van hyuti teju. He sacrificed himself so that others might live.
av von lest, so that...not	It utifbua av von hyuti toju. He sacrificed himself so that others might not die (= lest others might die).
Buwa van in as much as, given that	Buwa van iyt se tadiwa, at voy byuxo iyt. Given that she's married, I won't touch her.
Hij van now that	Hij van et se him, biu hegla kafeyl. Now that you're here, have some coffee.
Vakuwa van provide that	Vakuwa van et se yukoma, at hoydo. Provided you're comfortable, I will say my goodbyes.
ven if	Ven yat fe iber ixuni, yat yefe yexer ga jestay. If we want to get results, we must work harder.
ven whether	Ven et ijbo ha yexes obyose et. Whether you finish the job is up to you.
Oven unless	Oven et do hyuyen, at dolo. Unless you say otherwise, I will be silent.

Conjunctions as Circumstantial Clause Headers

If the conjunction contains a deictic adverb like where, when, how, etc., then the relative form of the deictic adverb is used. The most common of these begin with ho- or hye- and behave as in English.

Subordinating Conjunctions

CONJUNCTION	CIRCUMSTANCE	EXAMPLES
hoj when	TIME	Hoj et pua, ha if ija. When you arrived, the fun began.
hyej whenever	TIME	Hyej et dale, at hihide. Whenever you talk, I laugh.
hom where	PLACE	At voy te hom it pa. I don't know where he went.
hyem wherevere	PLACE	Et yafe per hyem et fu. You can go wherever you'd like.
hyam everywhere	PLACE	Hyam at pe, et se hum. Everywhere I go, you're there.
hosav why	CAUSE	Duven et te hosav it xa his? Do you know why he did it?
hosav because	CAUSE	It xa has hosav it fa teatuer yat hes. He did it because he wanted to show us something.
hoyen how, as	MANNER	Xu hoyen et fu van hyuti axlu ub et. Do as you'd want others to act toward you.
hogla as	DEGREE	Yexu hogla ugay et efe. Work as slowly as you need to.
hyegla however much (that)	DEGREE	Dalu hyegla et efo. Talk however much you need to.
hoglas as much (as)	QUANTITY	At telio hoglas at fe. I will eat as much as I want.

Other conjunctions of circumstance are sometimes used. This is not a complete list.

Assertive Interjections

Interjections in Mirad include the assertive expressions yes, no and maybe:

Common Assertive Interjections

Va!	Yes!
Ve!	Maybe!, Perhaps!
Vo!*	No!

* Not to be confused with voy, which translates the English adverb not, as in Vo, wit voy se tadxwa.....No, he is not married.

Examples:

• Va. At se otadxwa.....Yes. I am unmarried.
• Va. At se vay otadxwa.....Yes. I am indeed/really unmarried.
• Va, vay.....Yes, indeed.
• Va ay vo. Hus vey se vyaa.....Yes and no. That may be true.
• Va ey vo?....Yes or no?
• Ve. At te voy valay.....Maybe. I don't know for sure.
• Vo. At voy vatexe et.....No. I don't believe you.
• Vo! Dilwe von xu hus.....No! Please don't do that.
• Et se Amerikama, vao?....You're American, yes or no?
• Ven va, (van et) xu has.....If so, (let you) do it.
• Ven vo, von (et) xu has.....If not, don't (you) do it.

There are also some hybrid combinations of the above assertive expressions:

Hybrid Interjections

Vao?	Yes or no?
Vea!	Maybe so!
Veo!*	Maybe not!

Other interjections

There is a group of common interjections called the H interjections, because they all begin with the letter h:

Greetings

Initial Greeting	hay!	Hello!, Hi!
Vocative Greeting	hey!	Hey!, O!, Oh!
Terminal Greeting	hoy!	Goodbye!, Bye!
Proximal Specifier	hiy!	Voici!, Here is...
Distal Specifier	huy!	Voila!', There is...
Positive Exclamation	hyay!	Great! Wow!, Bravo!, Woopee!, Hurrah!
Surprise Exclamation	hyey!	What a...!, Oh!, Well!
Negative Exclamation	hyoy!	What a pity!, It's a shame!, Woe is...!, Darn it!, Yikes!, Boo!
Expression of Thanks	hway!1	Thanks!
Expression of Welcome	hwey!	You're welcome!, Please
Expression of Sorrow	hwoy!	Sorry!, Excuse me!
Expression of Joy	hwiy!	Whee!, O la la!
Expression of Pain	hwuy!	Ouch!, Ow!, That hurts!
Laughter	hihi!	Ha ha!, Hee hee!
Lamentation	huhu!	Boo hoo!, Woe is me!, Oy veh!
Admiration	hwaw!2	Wow!, What a show!
Disgust	hwow!3	Yuck!, Eeoow!, Gross!

¹Pronounced like English why. Mirad hw is pronounced like English wh.

²Pronounced like English wh+aw.

³Pronounced like English wh+oh.

Examples:

• Hay! Ata dyun se Johan.....Hi! My name is John.
• Hey, Johan! Duhoyen et xeye?....Hey, John, how are you doing?
• Hey, Tot!....O, God!
• Hoy. At teato et zajub.....Bye. I will see you tomorrow.
• Hiy ha dyen ho et dila.....Here's the book you requested.
• Hiy Tob.....Behold Man. (Ecce Homo).
• Hiy ata dyundraf.....Here's my caling card.
• Huy! Se xwa.....Voilà! It's done.
• Huy hos at yaka.....There's what I expected.
• Hyay et!....Good for you!
• Hyay! Et utnaze his......Bravo! You deserve this.
• Hway! Et sa gla fitipa......Thanks.! You were very kind.
• At fu hwayder et.....I'd like to congratulate you.
• Hwey!....You're welcome!
• Et efe hwoyder at.....You need to apologize to me.
• Fi. Hwoy.....Ok. I'm sorry.
• Hyey via imaj! ....Oh, what a beautiful morning!
• Hyey At ta voy van et upo.....Oh! I didn't know you were coming.
• Hyoy at.....Woe is me.
• Hyoy! Ga fia fikyen jonay.....Pity!. Better luck next time.
• Hwoy. At yefe hyoder et.....Sorry. I must take leave of you.
• Hihi! Hus sa gla diza.....Ha ha! That was very funny.
• Von hihidu.....Don't laugh.
• Huhu!.....Oy!
• Ha tudet voy poxo huhuder.....The baby won't stop crying.

Vulgar expletives are not offered here, but may arise naturally in daily speech.

Note: The English expression Please can be expressed in various ways:

• Hwey! Yepu.....Please! Come in. (Hwey can also mean you're welcome in answer to thank-you.
• Diwe von (et) tyopu ab ha vaz.'....Please (= it is requested) don't walk on the grass.
• Diwe van et yanupu yat.'....Please (= it is asked that) join us.
• Diwe!....Please!
• Xu (at) (ha) fis bi yubeler at hua tyoyafi.....Please (= do (me) (the) favor of) bring me those shoes.

Stronger forms of please include dilwe....it is requested or dirwe....it is begged.

Many of the interjections in this section can be made into verbs with the addition of -der (to utter), eg.:

• hayder....greet, say hi
• heyder....address, call out to, wave down
• hoyder....say goodbye to
• hyayder....congratulate
• hwayder....thank
• hwoyder....apologize, excuse oneself, say you're sorry
• hihider....laugh
• huhuder....boo, cry

There is a class of words in Mirad which are called hybrids, i.e. cross-combinations of opposite words that mean something and something else or something or something else. For example, in English, swinging is "moving BACK-AND-FORTH", or, questions can be of the type "YES-OR-NO". The vowels in these directionals are, for euphonic purposes, ao, eo, or ui. These alternating expressions are often used as adverbs or verbal prefixes. Here is an incomplete list of such expressions, the elements decomposed, and examples of their usage:

Hybrid Expressions

Opposite Elements	Hybrids
ab....on ob....off	aoper....get on and off aober....take on and off
bu....to, give bi...from, take	buinax....round trip fare buipar....shuttle bus buier....trade
ga....more go....less	gao....more-or-less
hum....there him....here	huimpoper....travel here and yon
hus....that his....this	huisbier....select between this and that
hyas....everything hyos....nothing	hyaoson....all-or-nothing matter
hyut....another hyit....the same person	hyuita....mutual hyuitifer....love one another
tej....life toj....death	teoja ebyem....life-and-death situation
u....away/west i....toward/east	uinab....row uinada....horizontal Uiyanmel....Eurasia
a....up/north o....down/south	aonab....column aonada....vertical pyaoser....to bounce
uz....crooked iz....straight	uizpaser....careen, stagger uizder....to equivocate
ub....toward ib....away	uipeni....comings and goings
uj....end ij....beginning	uijbar....on-off switch
uga....slow iga....fast	uigpar....scooter
va....yes vo....no	vaoder....decide vaotexer....wonder vaodid....yes-or-no question
yuja....closed yija....open	yuija....open-and-shut yuijar....valve manyuijar....light switch teabyuijer....blink
yab....up yob....down	yaoblir....elevator (up-and-down taker) yaoblar....lever yaopyaser....jump up and down yaobsum....bunkbed
ayeb1....in oyeb....out	aoyebar....piston (in-and-out-device)
za....front zo....back	zaobaser....rock zaopaser....swing
zu....left/west zi....right/east	zuibaser....wobble zuipaser....zigzag zuimera....east-west zuituyaba....ambidextrous
malza....white molza....black	maolza....gray
yav-....innocent yov-....guilty	yaovyek....trial (Lit: innocent-guilty-test)
zyu-....round zyi-....flat	zyuis....oval, ellipse
up-....come ip-....go, leave	mimuip....tide (Lit: sea-come-go) uipeni....comings and goings
uv-....sad iv-....happy	uivdin....tragicomedy

¹This is a long form of yeb (in) that contrasts with oyeb (out).

Keep in mind that if a hybrid word ends in b, the b assimilates by dropping from per (to go) and ber (to put) words, eg:

• aob + ber = aober
• uib + per = uiper

Exclamations Using the H-words

Many common exclamatory expressions in Mirad use words that begin with the letter h:

Common Exclamatories

MIRAD	ENGLISH	EMOJI
Hay!	Hello!	🙋
Hey!	Hey!, Oh...!, Yahoo!
Hoy!	Bye!	🙋
Hiy...	Here is / Here comes... / Voici
Huy...	There's... / There goes... / Voilà
Hway!*	Great! / Good for you! / Congratulations!, wow! / hurray!
Hwey!	Oh my! / Goodness gracious! / Well!
Hwoy!	Too bad! / What a shame! / Sorry!/ oy!
Hyay!	Thanks!	🙏
Hyey!	Your're welcome! / That's ok.
Hyoy!	Sorry!	😢
Hihi!	Ha ha! / That's funny!
Huhu!	Boo hoo!

* Pronounced like English why.

The above h-exclamations can be made into verbs by suffixing forms of -der....to utter, eg.:

• hyay....thanks ⇒ hyayder....to thank

• At fu hyayder et av hos et xa.....I'd like to thank you for what you did.

• hihi....ha ha ⇒ hihider....to laugh ⇒ hihiduer....to make laugh

• Et hihidua.....You made me laugh.

Expressions by Category

Offering Suggestions

• If I were you,.......Ven at su et,...
• In my opinion,.......Be ata texyen,...
• Speaking personally,.......Dalea av aut,...
• If I might suggest,.......Ven at duyafu,...
• I would suggest that.......At duu van...
• You would be well-advised to X.......Et su fiduwa Xer...
• Have you thought of Xing...?....Duven et vyetexaye Xen...?
• Why not X...?....Duhosav voy Xer...?

Asking for Suggestions

• What would you do if...?....Duhos et xu ven...?
• I'd like your opinion on.......At fu eta texyen vyel...
• Please advise me on.......Diwe fyidu at vyel...

Dispensing Advice

• I think you should X....,At texe van et yefu Xer
• If I were you,.......,Ven at su et,...
• You would be wrong to X.....Et su vyoa Xer.
• It would be good if.......Et su fia ven...
• I warn you that.......At jwatue et van...

Requests

• Would you mind Xing...?....Duven oboxu et Xer...?
• May I X...?....Duven at yafu Xer...?
• I'd like to X.......At fu Xer...
• Could you possibly X.......Duven et yafu hyeyen Xer...
• I would be much obliged if you were to X.......At su gla yefxwa ven et Xu...
• Please do me the favor of Xing.......Diwe xu at ha avun bi Xer...
• Could I ask you to X?....Duven at yafu dier et Xer?

Asking for Opinions

• I'd like to know you opinion on.......At fu ter eta texyen vyel...
• Tell me what you think about.......Du at hos et texe vyel...

Offering Opinions

• It seems to me that.......Tease at van...
• I believe that.......At vatexe van...
• I don't think that.......At votexe van...
• We don't feel that.......Wat voy tose van...
• I must say.......At dyefe...
• As far as I'm concerned.......Auta texyen se van...
• Personally, .......Aotay, ...
• I am convinced that.......At se vatexuwa van...

Expressing Preferences

• Which do you prefer, X or Y?....Duhaas et gaife, X ey Y?
• Would you like to X...?....Duven et fu Xer...
• I would prefer to X... ....At gaifu Xer...
• It doesn't matter to me whether.......Av at, getese ven...
• I don't mind if.......Av at glotese ven...

Expressing Intentions

• Do you intend to X?....Duven et ojtexe Xer?
• What are you going to do?....Duhos et xo?
• He is determined to X.......It vafe Xer...
• I would like to X.....At fu Xer.
• We would like you to X.....Wat fu van et Xu.

Permission and Prohibition

• May I come in?....Duven at afe yeper?
• Is that permitted?....Duven hus afwe?
• Parking is prohibited.....Purkoxwen ofwe.
• Do not walk on the grass.....Von tyope ab ha vab.
• You are authorized to X.....Et se afdwa Xer.
• No entry.....Von yepu. ~ Yepen ofwe.
• You must not cry.....Et yofe huhuder.
• Permit me to say.......Afxu at der...

Obligation and Necessity

• You must pay attention.....Et yefe tepzexer.
• You should leave.....At yefu ~ yeyfu iper.
• I have to go.....At yefe per.
• You are obliged to X.....Yet yefxwe Xer.
• We need your help.....Yat efe yeta yux.
• It is urgent that you respond.....Igefwe van et dudu.
• I am asking you to X.....At dieye et Xer.
• He demands that you X.....Wit dire van et Xu.
• It is required that you stay longer.....Dirwe van et besu gaj.

Agreement

• Yes, I agree with you.....Va, at yantexe et.
• He disagreed with me.....It yontexa at.
• My opinion differs from yours.....At texyen ogelse etas.
• This book will concur with me.....Hia dyes geltexo at.
• I don't accept your view.....At voy vabie eta texgun.
• I reject the concept that.......At vobie ha tyun van...
• What you said is entirely true.....Hos et da se aynay vyaa.
• What a great idea!....Huu agala teyen!
• Your application has been approved.....Eta didras fivadawe.
• Blessed be this food.....Van hia tel fyadwu.
• We are glad that you came.....Yat se iva van et upa.

Disagreement

• No, that's wrong.....Vo, hus se vyoa.
• You are lying.....Et vyodeye.
• I disagree with your opinion.....At yontexe eta texyen.
• We don't approve of you actions.....Yat voy fivade eta axleni.
• I cannot accept the fact that.......At vabiyofe van...
• Do you refuse to answer?....Duven et vobie duder?
• That's out of the question.....Hus se vabiyofwa.
• I must decline that suggestion.....At yefe voder hua dul.
• We condemn your views.....Yat fuvade eta texguni.
• I must disapprove of your actions.....At fuvadyefe eta axleni.
• Your statement be damned!....Eta del fyodwu!
• It's a pity (~ shame) that you don't understand.....Se yov van et voy teste.
• I hate the fact that.......At ufe van...
• It is sad that you have to leave now.....Se uva van et yefe pier hij.

Affirmation, Quibbling, Negation

• Yes.....Va.
• Yes, indeed.....Va, vay.
• Certainly ~ Of course....Vla(y).
• True.....Vya.
• Truly.....Vyay.
• Maybe.....Ve.
• Maybe so.....Vey va.
• Maybe not.....Vey vo.
• Possibly.....Vey.
• Probably.....Vle(y)
• Hardly.....Yikay.
• Almost.....Yubge.
• Barely.....Haway gwe.
• Exactly.....Gwe.
• No.....Vo.
• Most certainly not.....Vlo.
• Perhaps no.....Vey vo.
• Yes and no.....Vao.
• False.....Vyo.
• Absolutely not.....Abray voy.
• In no way.....Hoyen.
• In no way whatever.....Hyoyen.

Certainty, Probability, Possibility, and Capability

• I'm sure she'll come.....At se vlata van iyt upo.
• It is not certain that.......Voy se vlatwa van...
• It is probable that.......Se vlea van...
• You'll probably change your mind.....Et vley kyaxer eta texyen.
• In all likelihood,.......Gwa vley,...
• It might rain.....Vey mamilo.
• It will definitely rain.....Vlay mamilo.
• What is the probability that it will rain?....Duhos se ha vlean van mamilo?
• It is conceivable that she will win.....Texiyafwe van iyt ako.
• It would be inconceivable.....Texiyofwu.
• I am persuaded that nothing will happen.....At se vatexuwa van hyos xwo.
• It could be true.....Has yafwu ser vyaa. ~ Has syafwu vyaa.
• Those results are impossible.....Hua ixuni se yofwa.
• The odds of that happening.......Ha kyensagi van hus xwo...
• I can't understand you.....At yofe tester et. ~ At voy yafe tester et.
• Could you speak a little louder?....Duven et yafu daler ga az?
• It is not impossible that.......Voy se yofwa van...
• I would not be surprised if.......At voy yoku ven...
• Am I expected to be early?....Duven at yakwe ser jwaa?
• I doubt they will survive.....At vlotexe van yit yiztejo.
• She suspected that I'd be late.....Iyt vetexa van at so jwo.
• She assumed that I would be.......Iyt vletexa van at so...
• I bet you know.....At vlede van et te.
• You can't know for sure.....Et yofe ter vlay.
• That's impossible to predict.....Hus jadyofwa. ~ Hus se yofwa jader.
• I will be unable to X.....At yofo Xer.

Apologies

• I'm sorry but.......At se tipuva oy...
• Excuse me but.......Yovobu at oy...
• Please forgive me.....Diwe yovobu at.
• It pains me to say.......Byokxe at der...
• It is sad to say.......Se uva der...
• It is regrettable that.......Se uvtexyafwa van...
• They expressed their regrets.....Yit uvtaxde.
• I regret my crimes.....At zoyuvtose ata doyovi.
• I regret to inform you that.......At uvtose tuer et van...

Thanks

• Thank-you for your kind words.....Hyay av eta tipifa duni.
• I shall be forever grateful......At so byu hyaj ivtaxika.
• I am much obliged for your gift.....At se gla yefxwa av eta fibun.
• Thank-you very much!....Hyay hyay! ~ Ivtaxwo! ~ Gla yefxwa! ~ Gla naxtwe.
• I appreciate your help.....At nazte eta yux.
• Your words are much appreciated.....Eta duni gla naztwe.

Best Wishes

• Congratulations!....Hyay! ~ Yanfyaztos!
• I congratulate you!....At hyayde et! ~ At yanfyaztosde et!
• Best wishes to you!....Fia ojfoni av et!
• Happy birthday!....Iva tajjub!
• May your day be blessed!....Van eta jub fyadwu! ~ Fyadwu eta jub!
• I wish you a good trip!....At ojfe et fia pop!
• Bon voyage!....Fia pop!
• Season's greetings!....Iva jeb!
• Merry Christmas!....Iva Kristtaj!
• Happy New Year! ~ Nowruz!....Iva Ejna Jab!
• Happy Anniversary!....Iva jabzyus!
• Happy Hannukka!....Iva Hanuka!
• Get well soon!....Fibaksu ig!
• Good luck on your exams!....Fikyen be eta vyaoyeki!
• I wish you every success!....At ojfe et hya akuj!
• Good luck! (~ Mazel Tov!)....Fikyen!
• Be well!....Baksu!
• Long live the king!....Van ha edeb yagteju! ~ Yagteju ha edeb!
• Vive la France!....Hyay Ferom!
• Bravo! ~ Well done! ~ Congratulations!....Hyay!
• Get better soon! ~ Speedy Recovery!....Baksu ig! ~ Byekwu ig!

Common Greetings

• Hello!....Hay!
• Hey!....Hey!
• Goodbye!....Hoy!
• Good day!....Fijub!
• Good morning!....Fimaj!
• Good afternoon!....Fijwomaj!
• Good evening!....Fijwamoj!
• Goodnight!....Fimoj!
• How are you?....Duhoyen et se?
• How are you doing?....Duhoyen et xeye?
• I'm doing fine.....At xeye fi.
• What's new?....Duhos se ejna?
• See you later! ~ Au revoir!....Ju ha gawteat!
• Be well!....Su baka!
• Sleep well!....Tuju fi!
• What's happening?....Duhos kyeseye?
• Until then!....Ju huj!
• Take care!....Bikiu!

Announcements

• We are pleased to announce the birth of.......Yat ifie dotuer ha taj bi...
• I am happy to say that.......At se iva der van...
• I am sorry to report that.......At se uva dotuer van...
• It is with deep sorrow that we announce the death of.......Bay gla uvan, yat dotue ha toj bi...
• Ladies and Gentlemen, please be seated.....Duyti ay Dwuti, diwe simbiu.
• Welcome to the stage: X!....Fiupdiu bu ha dezyem: X!
• I would like to introduce you to our speaker, X.....At fu tyuer yet yata dalut: X.
• Attention! ~ Hear ye, hear ye!....Tepzexu!

Regrets and Condolences

• I'm very sorry for your loss.....At uvtose eta ok.
• My condolences on the death of.......Ibu ata yanuvtosi av ha toj bi...
• I am so sorry.....At se huugla uvtosika.
• Alas!....Hyoy!
• I share your grief.....At yantipuvie et.
• I regret having done that.....At ajuvtose xaer hus.
• I apologize for my actions.....At ajuvtosde (~ hyoyde) ata axleni.
• We were terribly upset to hear the news that.......Yat gla yobaxwa teeter ha tuun van...

Invitations and Responses

• You are hereby invited to join us.......Yet hiyen updiwe yanser yat...
• Welcome to our home.....Fiupu yata toom.
• Would you like to dine with us?....Duven yet fu tyaler bay yat?
• Be my guest!....Updiwe!
• I would be happy to come.....At su iva uper.
• Sorry, but I am otherwise engaged then.....Hyoy, at se hyuyen yuvlaxwa huj.
• Unfortunately, I must decline.....Fukyenay, at yefe vobier.

Establishing Parallels

• On the one hand...,on the other.......Ayen...,hyuyen ....
• Just as...so, too.......Gwe gel van...gey gel van...
• What is more,.......Gayen,...
• Furthermore,.......Gayen,...
• Added to this,.......Gabwa bu his,...
• By the same token,.......Geyen,...
• As far as...is concerned,.......Vyelea...
• As for.......Ayv...

Enumerating

• or...or even.......ey...ey gey...ey ujay
• but finally.......oy ujay...
• First of all.......Ujnay...
• Next, but not least.......Zanapay, oy voy gwo...

Favorable Comparisons

• far superior to....gla fia vyel
• We can't compete with....Yat yofe yanyeker bay
• has the edge over....se gyoay fia vyel

Unfavorable Comparisons

• was nowhere near as good as.......sa yib bi ser ge fia vyel'
• is no match for....yofe yanyeker bay
• is far inferior to....se gla oba vyel
• does not measure up to....voy se be neg bi
• bears no comparison with....voy se vyegexyafwa bay

Similar Comparison

• is equivalent to....genaze
• on a par with....gekyinse
• corresponds to....vyegexe
• can be likened to....se vyegexyafwa bu

Asking an Opinion

• What do you thing of X?....Duhos et texe ayv X?
• What is your opinion on X?....Duhos se eta texyen vyel X?
• What is your attitude to X?....Duhos se eta tepkin ub X?
• How do you see...Xing?....Be eta texyen, duhoyen...Xo?

Expressing an Opinion

• In my opinion,....be ata texyen,
• As I see it,....Be ata duni,
• Personally, I believe that.......Aotay, at vatexe van...
• It seems to me that.......Tease at van...
• I dare say (that).......At dyife van...
• As far as I'm concerned,....Ven et didu at,
• It is our belief that....Se yata vatex van
• I'm convinced that.......At se vetexuwa van...

Saying What You Like

• I would like to X.......At fu Xer...
• I would prefer to X.......At gaifu Xer...
• I very much enjoy Xing.....At gla ifie Xen.
• I have a weakness for X.....At ayse ozan av X.
• I love chocolate.....At ifle dyofyel.
• I adore ballet.....At ifre dyaz.
• Do you like dogs?....Duven et iyfe yepeti?
• I am very pleased to meet you.....At se gla ifxwa trier et.

Saying What You Don't Like

• I am not keen on seafood.....At voy iyfe piit.
• Do you dislike X?....Duven et uyfe X?
• I hate X.....At ufe X.
• I can't stand (~bear) the thought of Xing.....At yofe xorer ha tex bi Xen.
• That is disgusting.....Hus se ufxea.
• I despise rude people.....At ufre fubyenati.

Expressing Indifference

• I don't care about X.....At voy bikse vyel X.
• It doesn't matter to me.....Voy bikxe at (or: Getese bu at.)
• That doesn't matter.....Hus voy glatese.
• I couldn't care less about X.....X trefxe at hyohen.

Giving Reasons

• Why did you do that?....Duhosav et xa hus?
• I came because.......At upa hosav van...
• Because of X...?....Be ux bi X...?
• As a result of X...?....Gel ix bi X...?
• In order to X.......Av Xer...
• So that we would understand.......Av van yat testu...
• Therefore,.......Av hus,...
• As a result,.......Gel ix,...
• As a consequence,.......Gel jos,...
• As a result of X....Gel ix bi X
• As a consequence of X....Gel jos bi X
• I don't understand why.......At voy teste hosav van...
• This is due to the fact that.......His se ux bi van...
• Given that.......Twa van...
• The child died for lack of X.....Ha tud toja bi oys bi X.
• This happened by illegal means.....His kyesa bey odovyaba zeyeni.
• Tell me why you did it.....Duhosav et xa has.
• So, leave!....Av hus, ipu!
• I think, therefore I am.....At texe, av hus, at ese.

Correspondence Greetings

• Dear Sir....Hey Dwut
• Dear Madam....Hey Duyt
• Dear beloved.......Hey ifwa...
• To Whom it May Concern:....Hey Hyet:
• Yours truly, X....Hoy, X...

Euphemisms

Mirad sometimes offers polite ways to express certain things that might sound too direct or rude in normal conversation. Here are some examples:

Euphemisms

POLITE	DIRECT
ujpon....final rest	toj ....death
ujponxelam....final rest ceremony house	tojxelam....mortuary
ujpondin....final rest story	tojdin....obituary, death notice
eftim....necessity room	fyusulsom....toilet (waste appliance)
pontim....rest room	fyusulsom....toilet
twoobgon....male part	tiyub....penis
ogoblawa....uncut, uncircumcized	otiyugoblawa....un-penis-cut
xer sag a....to do a number one	tiyabiler....to pee (lit: bladder-fluid-do)
xer sag e....to do a number two	tikyeler....to defecate, sh-t (lit: anus-fluid-do)
milxer....to urinate, to pee, lit. to make water	tiyabiler....to urinate (lit: bladder-fluid-do)

Mirad Gammar/Acronyms and Abbreviations

Onomatopoeia refers the words in languages that represent sounds as they are heard by the speakers of those languages. They are the noise words you see in comics, such as pow or bang bang. These charts show equivalent sound words in Mirad. Often, they are reduplicated, hyphenated expressions like pop-pop. Any onomatopoetic word can be made into an action verb by suffixing some form of -der, if a human or animal vocalization, or -xer if it is a noise made by an object. Some example:

• hihi....ha ha

• hihider....to laugh

• plop-plop....plop, splat

• plop-plopxer....to go plop, to go splat

Human Sounds

Consuming food or drink

Language	Biting	Eating food	Drinking	Swallowing
English	chomp, crunch	yum yum	slurp	gulp
Mirad	nyam-nyam, krac-krac	yum-yum	slup-slup	glu-glu

Body sounds

Language	Heart-beating	Belching	Vomiting	Coughing	Flatulence	Sneezing	Snoring	Yawning
English	thump thump	burp	barf	cough cough	toot, fart	achoo	zzzz	ho-hum, yawn
Mirad	tump-tump	brup-brup	blug-blug	kah-kah	hwuf-hwuf	acuh-acuh	zii-zuu	yaa-yaa

Cries of Distress

Language	Baby crying	Scream	Shriek
English	wah wah	ow, ouch, yeow,	eek
Mirad	waa-waa	awc-awc	iik-iik

Expression of Positive Emotions

Language	Laughter	Kiss
English	ha ha	mwa
Mirad	hihi	mwa-mwa

Interrupted Speech

Language	Hushing	Pausing or thinking
English	shh, shush	uh, um, er
Mirad	xux-xux	hum-hum

Others

Language	Laughter	Kissing	Crying
English	ha ha	mwa	boo hoo
Mirad	hihi	mwa-mwa	huhu

Non-human Noises

Objects

Language	Balloon bursting	Canon, gunfire, machine gun	Crash	Door or floor creaking	Engine back-firing	Knocking	Dull strike	Falling strike	Sharp strike	Wet strike	Crunching, cracking (of sticks, bones, etc.)
English	pop	kaboom, pow, ra-ta-tat	wham, bang	bam, crash	put-put	knock knock, tap tap, bang bang, rap	bump, thud, thump	plop, splat, thunk	clang, clink, clank, clunk, chink, dink, tink, plink, ding, ping, conk	splash, splish, splosh, splat	crunch, crack
Mirad	pop-pop	bum-bum	krax-krax	bam-bam	pat-pat	bang-bang, tap-tap	bop-bop, dump-dump	plop-plop, slap-slap	cink-cink, tink-tink, konk-konk	splax=splax, splox-splox, splak-splak	krunc-krunc, krak-krak

Machinery

Language	Camera shutter	Car engine revving	Car horn honking	Clock ticking	Door bell ringing	Keyboard striking	Telephone ringing	Siren wailing	Train whistling
English	click	vroom vroom	beep beep	tick tock	ding dong, bing bong	click clack	ring ring, ringaling	wee-woo, awooga	choo choo
Mirad	klik-klik	vrum-vrum	bip-bip	tik-tuk	din-don	klik-kluk	riin-riin	ninu-ninu	cu-cu

Physical and natural phenomena

Language	Electricity flowing	Electric shock	Fire	Rain	Thunder	Steam hissing	Water dripping	Wind blowing
English	buzz	zap	crackle	pitter-patter	crack, kaboom, rumble	psss	drip drop, plink plonk	swish, whizz, wheeze, howl, sigh
Mirad	bzuu-bzuu	psiit-psiit	knit-knut	plip-plop	bum-bum	psii	plik plok	kxuu-kxuu, hwuu-hwuu

Animal Noises

Animal noises are formed by replacing the final -t of an animal name to a form of -der, eg.:

kapet....dog

kapeder....to bark, to bow-wow

fepet....cat

fepeder....to meow, to mew

bopet....cattle

bopeder....to moo

kapyot....wolf

kapyoder....to howl

serpyet....snake

serpyeder....to hiss

Here is a fuller list. If you replace the final der of the noise word with t, you'll get the animal that produces it.

• afekpeder....to bray, to hee-haw
• akorpelder....to chirp
• akpyader....to squawk, to screech
• alcerpoder....to bellow
• anpiader....to quack, to honk
• anpiyeder....to croak, to rivet
• ansanpiader....to honk
• appelader....to buzz, do drone, to thrum
• apwader....to cockadoodledoo, to crow
• bopeder....to beloow, to low, to moo
• bradepiider....to creak
• bubopoder....to snort
• cerpoyder....to bleat
• cihempelder....to chirp
• dipelader....to buzz
• ekpeder....to hinny, to neigh, to whinny, to sneer
• elpoder....to trumpet
• epleder....to wail
• famarpoder....to shriek
• fepeder....to meow, to mew, to purr
• fepyoder....to growl
• fumuspoder....to dook
• gafapader....to crow
• gafapayder....to cluck
• gafapaytuder....to cheep
• gepiader....to cry
• gipiader....to quack
• hirpaspader....to squall, to squeal
• kampoder....to hum
• mefapader....to gobble
• stripyader....to hoot
• urpyoder....to growl, to roar
• yopyeder....to croak

Introduction

In order to facilitate word-building and to maximize comprehension and decipherability of words, certain meanings and functions have been attached to consonants and vowels.

The vocabulary of Mirad is composed of base words and derived words.

The vocabulary is built on base words, that is, indivisible, building-block words. The choice of the root of these words (formed generally from two or three letters) is determined by:

• The meaning of each letter of the word.
• The importance of the group of ideas that this word evokes in its proper sense and in the sense that is directly opposite it, eg.: fixed vs. variable.
• How frequently the word and its derivations are used in the language.
• The geometric system of vocabulary construction (see a later section on what this is all about).
• The logic of its composition.
• The mnemonic associations this word suggests.

The words derived from base words in turn follow very simple laws called vocabulary-building rules, which are spelled out below.

Base Words

Base words are elements of vocabulary that cannot be broken down any further and which serve as the basis for many derived words in the language. Base words are divided into two groups:

• Group 1:  consisting of nouns
• Group 2:  consisting of prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, determiners, and verbs.

Base words of Group 1

Base words of Group 1 (nouns) are composed of three letters:

• The first, a consonant called the classifier
• The second, a vowel or vowel cluster called the ordinal
• The third, a consonant called the generic

Examples:

Base Word Composition

CLASSIFIER	ORDINAL	GENERIC	MEANING
t	o	b	man
d	o	t	society
p	o	t	animal
f	o	b	plant

Base words of Group 2

Base words of Group 2 (everything but nouns) are composed of one or two letters, not including grammatical endings. If one letter, it is a consonant or sometimes a vowel(*). If two letters, they consist of a consonant + vowel combination or a vowel + consonant combination. Here are some examples (the hyphen at the end means that the base word does not stand alone, but is followed in usage by a grammatical ending such as -er (verb infinitive marker) or -a (adjective marker):

Some Examples of Group 2 Base Words

b-....put	p-....go
s-....be	x-....do
d-....say	t-....know
ab....on	ob....off
bu....to	bi....from
if-....love	uf-....hate
fi-....good	fu-....bad
va....yes	vo....no
vya*-....true	vyo-....false
a....one	o....zero

* As mentioned above, "vowel" in this case may include complex vowels, i.e. those preceded and/or followed by one of the glides y or w. So, for purposes here, ya, ye, yi, yo, yu, wa, and other pre- and post-glided vowels, are considered "complex vowels".

Consonants and Their Meanings

The classifier (initial letter) and generic (final letter) in group 1 base words (nouns) are consonants. Also, group 2 base words almost always have one consonant. So, you need to be familiar with the general meaning of the consonants in the Mirad alphabet, as shown in the following chart:

Consonants and Their Meanings

CONSONANT	GROUP 1 CLASSIFIER	GROUP 1 GENERIC	GROUP 2 CLASSIFIER	IN NUMBERS
b	organ, health	organism	gesture, position
d	society	family	communicating
f	vegetation	textile, clothing	volition, attributes
g	--	measurement	quantity, attributes
j	time	time	time
k	--	health	change, risk, attributes
l	--	element, food, liquid, nature	--	l = ten
m	nature	place, building, furniture	temperature, light	ml = million mr = billion
n	commerce	--	--
p	animal, vehicle	motion	movement
r	--	tool, machine, cosmos	--	r = thousand
s	form, image, furniture	thing	being, form, thing	s = hundred
t	human, body	person, animal	intelligence, knowing
v	plant, color	linen	truth, attributes
x	action	--	action, doing, making
z	--	precious, art	spatial, attributes

The following consonants have semantic functions rather than, or in addition to semantic values:

• l and r:   Liquids used after vowels to intensify the semantics of a word, eg.: baer....to lean, baler....to press, barer....to crush;
• y:   Glide used 1) before a stem vowel to intensify the semantics of a word, eg. voa....negative -> vyoa....false, or 2) after a vowel to de-intensify the semantics of a word, eg. ama....hot -> ayma....warm.
• h:   Used functionally only in certain interjections like hoy....goodbye and determiners like his....this, and has no semantic value.
• w:   Has no semantic value of its own, but is used only 1) to form the masculine gender of nouns and pronouns, eg. tob....person -> twob....man, or 2) to form the passive voice of verbs, eg. uber....to send -> ubwer....to be sent, or 3) to form a numerical unit marker, eg. awa....one, or 4) sometimes to substitute for y when this letter would cause ambiguity or difficulty in pronunciation with other consonants eg. jwo....late, instead of jyo.
• n:   In addition to its semantic values, functions often 1) as a buffer letter, as in ana....only, or 2) as a suffix to derive a nominal abstraction from an adjective, such as fian....goodness from fia....good, or from a verb, such axnen....behaving from axner....to behave.

Vowels and Their Meanings

Ordinal vowels in Mirad have meanings or values of the following types:

• meronymic
• hierarchical
• scalar
• geo-specific
• oppositional/polar
• vectorial
• directional and positional
• special

Ordinal Vowel Values

The numerical value of ordinal vowels is shown in the chart below. The vowels beginning with y are considered pre-y-glided vowels. These numeric values serve as the "ordinal vowel" in scaled base words. See the section on Vowels.

Numeric Values of Vowels

Ordinal Vowel	o	a	e	i	u	yo	ya	ye	yi	yu
Cardinal Number	0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9

Meronymic Vowel Gradation

Ordinal vowels can be used as the stem vowel in Group 1 base words to form a meronymic series. (This gradation can also be called taxonomic. The top element, or hypernym, has zero (o) as its defining vowel. The others are hyponyms or meronyms, and have incrementally higher numbers of their ordinal vowel. Tab (body) is the first meronym of tob (human being), the hypernym or zeroth element.

Meronymic Series

Rank	Meronymic
0	tob....human	fob....plant	vob....crop
1	tab....body	fab....tree	vab....grass
2	teb....head	feb....fruit	veb....tuft
3	tib....trunk	fib....trunk	vib....stalk
4	tub....arm	fub....branch	vub....shoot
5	tyob....leg	fyob....root	vyob....tuber

The words that descend from the base word are called subordinal words, hyponyms, or meronyms. A hypernym is a word that is higher in the taxonomy.

Hierarchical Vowel Values

Ordinal vowels can be used as the stem vowel in Group 1 base words to form a hierchical series where the top element has zero (o) as its defining vowel. The others are subordinate elements and have incrementally higher numbers that define a descending series related to that top element.

Hierarchical Vowel Gradation

Rank	Hierarchy
0	dob....state	dot....society	tod....family	xob....organization
1	dab....government	dat....friend	tad....spouse	xab....staff
2	deb....leader	det....associate	ted....parent	xeb....boss
3	dib....ministry	dit....citizen	tid....sibling	xib....department
4	dub....minister	dut....gentleman	tud....child	xub....branch

Scalar Vowel Gradation

Ordinal vowels can also be used as the stem vowel in Group 1 base words to form a scalar series, where each member of the series is a smaller or less important component as it descends.

Scalar Series

Rank	Scalar
0	mos....masonry	som....furniture	tom....building
1	mas....wall	sam....cabinet	tam....house
2	mes....door	sem....table	tem....hall
3	mis....window	sim....chair	tim....room
4	mus....stairs	sum....bed	tum....closet

Geo-specific Vowel Gradation

Ordinals can have geo-specific values, that is values, related to the sky, land, sea, outer space, and underground.

Geo-specific Vowel Values

Ordinal	Mirad Color	English Color
o	outer space, top level	mop....orbit	mom....outer space	mol....nature	dop....military	pop....voyage
a	air, gas, sky	map....wind	mam....sky	mal....air	dap....air force	pap....flight
e	ground, soil, solid	mep....road	mem....land	mel....soil	dep....army	pep....ride
i	liquid, water, sea	mip....river	mim....sea	mil....water	dip....marines	pip....navigation/swim
u	underground, mineral, substance	mup....tunnel	mum....underground	mul....mineral		pup....tunneling

Spectral Ordinal Vowel Gradation

The basic color terms use the natural order of the spectrum to determine the ordinal vowels:

Spectral Ordinal Vowel Gradation

Order	Mirad	English
0	olza1	blank, of no color
1	alza	red
2	elza	orange
3	ilza	yellow
4	ulza	green
5	yolza	blue
6	yalza	purple
7	yelza	pink2

1) In the natural spectrum, there really is no 0th order. The colors black and white are rendered in Mirad by the words molza and malza, which are polar opposites based on the roots mo for dark and ma- for light.

2) Properly indigo, but humans have a hard time distinguishing purple and indigo.

Oppositional (or Polar) Vowel Values

In Group 2 stems:

Oppositional Vowel Values

a  ⇔  ya	intermediate	i  ⇔  yi
⇑ positive ⇓negative	e  ⇔  ye	⇑ positive ⇓negative
o  ⇔  yo	value	u  ⇔  yu

• positive a contrasts with negative o    (av....for vs. ov....against)
• positive ya contrasts with negative yo    (yava....innocent vs. yova....guilty)
• positive i contrasts with negative u    (fia....good vs. fua....bad)
• positive yi contrasts with negative yu    (yiva....free vs. yuva....bound)
• e and ye are in-between values    (eva....neutral, yeva....fair)

Group 1 Oppositional Vowel Gradation

positive	intermediate	negative
aga....big	ega....normal	oga....small
yava....innocent	yeva....just	yova....guilty
ava....for	eva....neutral	ova....against
aker....to win	eker....to risk	oker....to lose
yak....expectation	yek....attempt	yok....surprise
fia....good		fua....bad
ifer....love		ufer....hate
yifa....brave		yufa....afraid

Some Group 1 base words have ordinal vowel stems that exhibit oppositional values:

The Group 1 base word bok (illness) is a good example:

Group 1 base word with oppositional values

NEGATIVE	INTERMEDIATE	POSITIVE
bak....health	bek....treatment	bok....illness
byak....hygiene	byek....cure	byok....pain byoyk....ache blok....suffering brok....agony
baak....sanitation		book....fatigue
bik....care		buk....wound buyk....sore

Vectorial Vowel Values

These ordinal vowels have to do with directions, up, down, south, left, etc.

a

↑

u  ←     e     →  i

↓

o

a....on, above, north (ab....on, zamer....north)

e....center, middle, equator (eb....between, ze....center)

o....off, below, south (ob....off, zomer....south)

i....right, east (zi....right, zimer....east)

u....left, west (zu....left, zumer....west)

Directional and Positional Vowel Values

Directional and Positional Vowel Values

A
U		a ↓	↓ a	↑ ya	ya ↑		I
	u →		e	ye		→ i
	→ u		e	ye		i →
	→ yu		E			yi →
	yu →					→ yi
		↑ o	o ↑	yo ↓	↓ yo
O

Explanation of the above chart:

• If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a positional value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words.
• The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate directional values.
• If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed before the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs
• Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed after the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words.

Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart

A	position		on, above, north	zamer....north
a	movement	(free)	on	baer....lean
a	movement	(contact)	onto	aber....put on
ya	movement	(free)	up, ascend	byaer....lift
ya	movement	(contact)	up, get up, set up	yaber....raise
O	position		under, lower, south	zomer....south
o	movement	(free)	off	boer....hang
o	movement	(contact)	on the bottom of, underneath	oper....get off
yo	movement	(free)	down	pyoser....fall
yo	movement	(contact)	fall	yoper....rise
U	position		left, west	zumer....west
u	movement	(free)	move toward the center, come	uber....send
u	movement	(contact)	reach the center, arrive	pyuer....reach
yu	movement	(free)	near, approach	yuber....approach
yu	movement	(contact)	near, reach	byuser....touch
I	position		right, east	zimer....east
i	movement	(free)	from the center out, go away	pier....go away
i	movement	(contact)	from the center out, leave	iper....leave
yi	movement	(free)	away, go far	yiper....go far
yi	movement	(contact)	from afar, originate	pyiser....originate
E	position		center, equator	zemer....equator
e	rest		between	eb....between
e	rest		at, stay, hold	bexer....hold
ye	movement		in, into, enter	yeper....enter
ye		(contact)	contain	byeer....contain

Special value of certain vowels

The prefixes a- or an- meaning one, sole, singular.

• aot....person
• anot....individual

Also, the prefix yan- meaning together contrasts with yon-....apart.

• yanber....to compose
• yonber....to separate

The letter y is prefixed to the vowels of personal pronouns to make them plural:

• at....I, me as opposed to yat....we, us
• et....you as opposed to yet....you (pl.), you all
• it....he, she, him, her as opposed to yit....they, them

The letter y is post-fixed to vowels to change the gender to specifically feminine:

• it....he, she, him, her as opposed to iyt....she, her
• tob....person, human being as opposed to toyb....woman

The letter w is prefixed to vowels to change the gender to specifically masculine:

• it....he, she, him, her as opposed to wit....he, him
• tob....person, human being as opposed to twob....man

The Meaning of Group 1 Base Words

The meaning of the base words of Group 1 comes from the combination of the values of the classifier (initial) and the generic (final) consonants.

The ordinal vowel of those Group 1 base words has a 1) scalar/hierachical, 2) geo-spatial, 3) oppositional, 4) vectorial/positional, or 5) mnemonic values.

The following table shows some Group 1 bases words, the meaning of their consonants, and the type of ordinal vowel scalarity:

Group 1 Zeroth-level Scalar Base Words and Meanings of the Consonants

BASE WORD	CLASSIFIER CONSONANT	GENERIC CONSONANT	SCALARITY TYPE
tob....person	t = human	b = organism	meronymic
tof....clothing	" " "	f = fabric	meronymic
tod....family	" " "	d = society	hierchical
tom....building	" " "	m = place	vectorial/positional
tov....lingerie	" " "	v = linen	meronymic
tol....nourishment	" " "	l = food	oppositional
top....soul, spirit	" " "	p = motion	meronymic
dob....state	d = society	b = organism	hierarchical
dop....military	" " "	p = movement	geo-specific
dot....society	" " "	t = human	hierarchical
dom....city	" " "	m = place	geo-specific
job....time	j = time	b....organism	hierarchical
fob....vegetation	f = vegetable	b = organism	meronymic
vob....crop	v = plant	b = organism	meronymic
vos....flower	" " "	s = thing	meronymic
volz....color	" " "	lz = color, art	spectral
som....furniture	s = thing	m = place	scalar
mos....masonry	m = place, nature	s = thing	scalar
mor....universe	" " "	r = machine, system	scalar
mom....outer space	" " "	m = place	geo-specific
mol....nature	" " "	l = substance	geo-specific
mop....orbit	" " "	p = movement	geo-specific
pot....animal	p = movement	t = human, animal	geo-specific
bok....illness	b = organ	k = condition	oppositional
nom....place	n = commercial	m = place	special
nog....degree	" " "	g = measurement	special
nof....cloth	" " "	f = cloth	special
nov....linen	" " "	v = linen	special
nod....point	" " "	d = communication	special
xob....organization	x = action	b = organism	hierarchical

Special Arrangement

Other Group 1 nouns, listed in the chart below, have an ordinal vowel which is not so much geo-specific or hierarchical per se, but rather special in some fashion. The consonants, especially the classifier consonant, have meanings like those in the above chart.

Other Group 1 Base Words

d- communication daz dance dyaz ballet dez theater diz comedy duz music dyez cinema din story dun word dyun name dyan sentence dyes book deup rhythm

dr- write drof board draf card dref paper drov cardboard drav notebook drev page drez poetry drar pencil drir typewriter drur printer

m- nature mag fire mak electricity mog ash meg stone mef brick mug metal muk mineral mez crystal mek dust myek powder mav flame mov smoke maf cloud maj daytime moj night man light maz shine mon shade moz dark

n- commerce naz value nas money nax price nyaz wealth nyan stack nox expense nyox waste nex saving nyex storing nix earning nyix order nux pay nyux supply nun merchandise nyun product nuz jewel nem location nyem place nyeb box nab row nap order nad line nod point ned plane nyed grid nyad chain nid volume nag measure nog degree nig space

j- time jag age jud date jod instance jop sequence jep process jwap moment jwep instant

s- thing sag number saz sculpture san form saun kind son matter (abstract) sin image siz painting sun thing (concrete) syan class syen style syin subject syun object sar instrument sir machine sor engine sur motor

t- human / knowledge taz statue tap physique tep mind top spirit tuz art toz skin color tez culture tyez magic tin doctrine tun science tyan class tyen skill tyun idea tos sensation tes meaning tot god

The Meaning of Group 2 Base Words

The meaning of Group 2 base word stems comes from the combination of the values of the classifier consonant and the ordinal (stem) vowel. The stem does not include adjectival (-a), adverbial (-ay), and verbal inflections (-er, -ser, -xer, etc.), which are shown in a smaller typeface after the stem.

The ordinal (stem vowel) holds oppositional values like positive, intermediary, and negative.

Examples:

Stems of Group 2 Base Words

CLASSIFIER CONSONANT	POSITIVE	INTERMEDIATE	NEGATIVE	POSITIVE	NEGATIVE
j (time)	ja before	je during	jo after	ji since	ju until
	aj past	ej present	oj future	ij/er beginning/begin	uj/er end/end
	taj/er birth/to be born	tej/er life/to live	toj/er death/to die	tij/er awake state/to be awake	tuj/er sleep/to sleep
	jwa early	jwe on time	jwo late	yij/a opening/open	yuj/a closing/closed
g (measurement)	ga more	ge equal	go less	gin point	gun angle
	aga big	ega normal	oga small	iga fast	uga slow
	yaga long	yega normal	yoga short	yiga hard	yuga soft
	gyaa thick	gyea enough	gyo- thin	gyia solid	gyua fragile
k (randomness)	kaxer find	kexer seek	koxer hide	kia oblique	kua lateral
	aker win	eker play	oker lose	ika full	uka empty
	yaker expect	yeker try	yoker suprise	yika difficult	yuka easy
	kyaa mobile	kyea haphazard	kyoa fixed	kyia heavy	kyua light
m (nature)	ama hot	--	oma cold	ima wet	uma dry
fer (want, qualities)				fia good	fua bad
	fyaa holy	fyea mythical	fyoa profane	fyia useful	fyua harmful
	yafer be able	yefer must	yofer cannot	yifer dare	yufer fear
	afer may	efer need	ofer be prohibited	ifer love	ufer hate
v (truth, qualities )	va yes	ve maybe	vo no	via beautiful	vua ugly
	vay really	vey may	voy not
	av for	eva neutral	ov against	iva happy	uva sad
	vyaa true	vyea relative	vyoa false	vyia clean	vyua dirty
	yava innocent	yeva fair	yova guilty	yiva free	yuva captive
	van that	ven if	von lest
z (spatial)	za in front of	ze in the middle of	zo in back of	zia right	zua left
	zay ahead	zey across	zoy back, re-
	zyaa wide	zye through	zyoa narrow	zyia flat	zyua round
	aza strong	eza moderate	oza weak	iza straight	uza curved
	yaza convex	yez along	yoza concave	yiz beyond	yuz around
b-er (put)	bay/(xer) with, (agitate)	bey/((xer)) by, (hold)	boy(xer) without/(calm)	bi(er/xer) from, (take/pull)	bu(er/xer) to, (give/push)
	ab(er) on,(put on)	eb(er) between,(block)	ob(er) off,(take off)	ib(er) away,(receive)	ub(er) toward,(send)
	byaser/xer stand/erect	byexer tap	byoser/xer hang/hang	byi(ser) since,(originate)	byu(ser/xer) up to,(contact/touch)
	yab(er) up,(raise)	yeb(er) in,(enter) oyeb(er) out,(exit)	yob(er) down,(lower)	yib(er) far,(remove)	yub(er) near,(bring)
per (go)	paser/xer move/move	peser/xer wait/trap	poser/xer stop/stop	pier/ser/xer leave/withdraw/catch	puer/ser/xer arrive/jump/throw
	pyaer/ser/xer hover/jump up/launch	pyeser/xer encounter/strike	pyoser/xer fall/drop	pyiser/xer emanate/derive	pyuser/xer reach/impact
	yaper rise	yeper enter	yoper descend	yiper go far	yuper approach
	aper get on	eper intervene	oper get off	iper go away	uper come
ser (be)	san/s/xer evolve/make	sexer build	son/xer matter/destroy	sin/yn image/sign	sun/er/xer thing/provide/realize
	aser become	eser exist	oser cease to be
xer (do )	xaler execute	xeler practice	xoler fail	xiler undertake	xuler provoke
	axler act	exer function	oxler abstain	ixer effect	uxer cause
	yaxer be busy	yexer work	yoxer be idle	yixer use	yuxer help
ter/rer/yer (know/recognize/know how)	taxer remember	texer think	toxer forget	tier/xer learn/study trier get to know tyier learn how	tuer/xer/uxer inform/teach/raise truer familiarize tyuer train
der/rer (say/write)	daler talk	deler state dyeer read	doler be silent droer erase	dier/ler/rer ask/beg/require	duer/ler/rer suggest/insist/demand dyuer call
h- (determiners)	ha(a) the	hea some	hoa which	hia this	hua that
	hya(a) all	hyea any	hyoa no	hyia same	hyua other
(conjunctions)	ay and	ey or	oy but
	yan together		yon apart
(numbers)	a one	e two	o zero	i three	u four
	ya six	ye seven	yo five	yi eight	yu nine
(privatives)			lo- (dis-/un-) lyo- (dis-) oy- (-less)

* Mixed root. taj/tej/toj instead of yaj/yej/yoj, because the human letter root t is more intuitive.

Note: The opposition (y)a-(y)e-(y)o is a three-way opposition with an intermediary sense, but (y)i-(y)u is two-way, without any intermediary sense.

Derived Word Formation Rules

Derived words are formed in accordance with certain simple rules of word-building:

These consist of the following rules:

1. Compounding
2. Affixation
3. Ordinal Vowel Scaling
4. Overlapping
5. Adding Ordinal Vowels
6. Swapping Generic Consonants
7. Marking Words for Gender
8. Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels
9. Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels
10. Deriving Words with a Mnemonic Pattern
11. Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically

Rule #1: Compounding

Compound words are obtained through the combination of two or more whole words or stub words. In the combining process, the determining word is placed quite simply in front of the word it determines. Compounds consist mainly of noun + noun, but there can be other part-of-speech combinations.

Examples:

Compounding

COMPONENT 1	COMPONENT 2	COMPOUND
mor....cosmos	tun....science, -ology	mortun....cosmology
mag....fire	yazmel....mountain	magyazmel....volcano
dob....state	mem....land	dobmem....territory
tul....dish	dras....something written	tuldras....menu
sin....picture	dras....something written	sindras....description
tam....house	kyoxer....to fix (in place)	tamkyoxer....to settle
tax....memory	drer....to write	taxdrer....to record
kyo-....fixed	tep-....head	kyotepa....stubborn

Sometimes, the first element can be a stub of a whole word, i.e. the word with the final consonant dropped. The word for rain, for example, is ma(m) (sky) + mil (water), where the final consonant of the first word is dropped, thus, mamil.

When compounding an adjective with a noun, if the adjective begins with a vowel, often it will be suffixed to the noun, otherwise prefixed, (but this is not a strict rule), eg:

• uzra....twisted + tep....mind ---> tepuzra....crazy
• kyoa....fixed + tep....mind ----> kyotepa....stubborn, obsessed
• aza....strong + tep....mind ----> tepaza....intelligent
• fua....bad + tip....mood ----> futipa....cross, ill-tempered
• aga....big + tip....mood ----> tipaga....magnanimous, generous

Rule #2: Affixation

Most adverbs and prepositions can be used as prefixes:

Prefixes

Adverbs and Prepositions as Prefixes

PREFIX	BASE	COMPOUND
ja....before	per....to go	japer....to precede
jo....after	per....to go	joper....to follow
va....yes	der....to say	vader....to affirm
jo....after	dras....something written	jodras....postscript
za....ahead	jub....day	zajub....tomorrow
yon....apart	mel....land	yonmel....island

Prepositional prefixes ending in b with verbs per and ber (and their derivations) lose the b before verbal elements based on per (go) and ber (put), as shown in the following chart:

Assimilation of b and p

PREFIX	BASE VERB	NEW VERB
yab....up	ber....put	yaber....raise (NOT: yabber)
yab....up	per....go	yaper....rise (NOT: yabper)
ab....on	ber....put	aber....put on, apply
ab....on	per....go	aper....get on, mount
yob....down	ber....put	yober....take down
yob....down	per....go	yoper....descend
ob....off	ber....put	ober....take off, remove
ob....on	per....go	oper....get off, dismount
yeb....in	bux....a push	yebux....impulse
yeb....in	pyoser....fall	yepyoser....collapse

The loss of the b in the above words in one of the only cases of fusion in Mirad's grammar. Mirad is by and large an agglutinative language where building-blocks are juxtaposed with no change of form. Another case of fusion is when so-called stubs are combined. For example, doyijem (public square), which is composed of do(m)....city + yij(a)....open + (n)em....place. The morphemes (= building-block words) of Mirad always have one and only one meaning, unlike in English where the prefix a- can have many different meaninings.

The adjective ending a is often dropped¹, as is the er or prefixes taken from verbs. Longish noun prefixes are sometimes clipped, so that tyoyab becomes tyoya-.

Prefixes Built on Words and Word Stubs

PREFIX	BASE VERB	COMPOUND VERB
oza....weak	der....say	ozder....whisper
yaga....long	der....say	yagder....ramble
aja....past	der....say	ajder....evoke
yoga....short	der....say	yogder....summarize
tyoyab....foot	per....go	tyoyaper....walk
dreer....write	sar....tool	dresar....pencil
tuyob....hand	dren....writing	tuyodren....manuscript
mam....sky	mil....water	mamil....rain

¹: Sometimes, the adjective ending a is retained when an adjective is compounded with xer or ser. This device may be used to distinguished two differently nuanced verbs. For example, aga + xer can produce agaxer....to magnify or agxer....to grow. Usually, the compound where the adjective suffix has been eclipsed has the more idiomatic meaning.

Most Common Mirad Prefixes

Common Prefixes

PREFIX	EXAMPLES
a(n)-....uni-, number one, up	anzyuspar....unicycle antotin....monotheism adeb....emperor
aa-....arch-, first-, prime	aadub....prime minister aatat....archangel aavyan....principle
aag-....arch-, proto-, main	aagmep....highway aagdovyab....constitution aagovekut....archrival
aaj-....paleo-, proto-	aajtobtun....paleoanthropology aajsiyn....fossil
ab-....ad-, top, on, epi-	abtob....superman abtim....attic abzen....epicenter
ayb-....over-, super-, hyper-, sur-	aybmep....overpass aybdresin....superscript abdyun....hypernym
agal-....mega(lo)-	agalvyotos....megalomania agaltoj....megadeath
alo(n)-....deca-, ten-	alojaga....ten years old alojab....decade alonsuna....decimal
aloy(n)-....deci-, tenth-	aloynux....tithe aloyngoler....decimate
am-....thermo-	amzemula....thermonuclear amvyabxar....thermostat
amlo(n)-....mega-	amloagvunak....megavolt amlotoj....megadeath
amloyn-....micro-	amloynjweb....microsecond
anyen-....idio-	anyenboka....idiopathic anyendyan....idiom anyentepa....idiotic
ao(b/p)-....north-south, up-down, vertical, vertically, y-axis	aonab....column, x-y-axis aopuys yuzpar....hop-on-hop-off bus aonada....vertical
aoye(b/p)-....in-and-out	aoyebar....piston aoyebelen....import-exports aoyepaper....fly in and out
aro(n)-....kilo-	aronminak....kilometer arobanak....kilobit
aroyn-....milli-	aroynvunak....millivolt aoynwunak....milliwatt
(a)so(n)....cent-	asojagat....centenarian asolinak....hectoliter sojab....century
asoy(n)-....cent-, centi-	asoygenak....centigram asoylinak....centiliter
av-....pro-	avyaotina....pro-communist
ayn-....full-, holo-, whole-	aynnuut....wholesaler aynsin....hologram aynteptija....fully-conscious
e(b/p)-....inter-	ebmos....mezzanine ebyanmulxer....intermingle eper....intercede
ejna-....neo-	ejnadun....neologism ejnaobdabin....neocolonialism
e(n)-....ambi-, bi-, di-, duo-, two-	entyoba....bipedal enzyuspar....bicycle envolza....dichromatic
eon-....duo-, double-, twin-	eonin....dualism eondal....double-speak eonsum....twin bed
ev-....a-, neutral	evdofina....amoral evdabtuna....apolitical
ey(b/p)-....intra-, among	eybmasa....intramural eybmimkuma....intracoastal
ey(n)-....demi-, half-, hemi-, mixed-, pen-, quasi-, semi-	eynzyus....semi-circle eynzyup....half-turn eyntilsyeb....demitassee eynyonmel....peninsula
fi-....bene-, eu-, good-, nice-, well-	fixut....benefactor fidrawa....well-written fitos...euphoria
fu-....dys-, ill-, mal-, mis-, poorly-	futos....dysphoria futuwa....ill-informed fuxeyn....malfeasance
fya-....hiero-, holy-, sancti-	fyasdresiyn....hieroglyphic fyader....sanctify fyatwed....holy father
fye-....mythical, fantasy	fyetop....phantom fyetobet....elfin fyetexer...fantacize fyedin....fantasy
fyo-....evil, profane	fyotez....occult fyotat....devil fyotyez....witchcraft
gaw-....re-, again	gawteaper....revisit gawaker....regain
garale-....tera-	garaleagbanak....terabyte
garalyi-....exa-	garalyibanak....exabit
garalyo-....peta-	galayoagbanak....petabyte
garela-....zetta-	garelaagbanak....zettabyte
garelu-....yotta-	gareluagbanak....yottabyte
ge-....equal to, equi-, even-	geyafwa....equipollent genaza....equivalent
gel-....homo-, like-, simul-	gelzena....homocentric gelvolza....homochromatic
geyl-....simul-	geyldyan....simile geylxer....assimilate
gla-....many-, multi-, poly-	glatyenika....multi-skilled glatwada....polyandrous glavolza....many-hued
glo-....mini-, little-, few-	gloduna....succint, of few words glonixea....low-earning
gorale-....pico-	goraleagfenak....picofarad
goralyi-....atto-	goralyigenak....attogram
goralyo-....femto-	goralyoon....quadrillionth
goralyu-....nano-	goralyusonak....nanosecond
gorela-....zepto-	gorelagenak....zeptogram
gorelu-....yocto-	gorelugenak....yoctogram
gra-....extra-, hyper-, over-, ultra-	gratosea....hypersensitive grazoyaxler....overreact granoxea....extravagant
gro-....hypo-, under-	groyixlawa....underemployed groaman....hypothermia
gwa-....hyper-, maxi-, -most, pleisto-, uber-, ultra-, pure, macro-	gwayelza....pure pink gwayafa....supreme gwauja....ultimate gwazoa....hindmost
gwo-....least-, mini-, micro-	gwosag....minimum gwoyuzpur....minibus gwoexlus....microprocessor
hi-....hither, these, this	his....this hisi....these him....here
hya(s)-....pan(to)-, omni-, all-, every-	hyas....everything hyati....all of them hyastea....omniscient hyataadifa....pansexual
hu-....that	hus....that huj....then huyen...that way
huim-....here-and-there, here-and-yon	huimkexer....search high and low huimpaper....fly here and there hyuimpoper....travel here-and-there
huu-....so, such	huugla....so, so very hus....such huyen....in such a way, so, thus
hyaewa-....ambi-	hyaewati....both of them hyaewaziza....ambidextrous hyaewatoobifa....ambi-sexual
hye-....-ever, any, whatever, whichever	hyem....anywhere, wherever hyempea....erratic hjej....ever, anytime
hyi-....homo-, like-, same	hyitoobifa....homosexual hyis....same thing hyij....at the same time
hyo(s)-....nothing, a-	hyostosea....apathetic
hyu(t/s)-....alter-, hetero-, other-, xeno-, else	hyutoobifa....heterosexual hyua....another, alternate hyutufa....xenophobic hyus....something else
hyui(t/s)-....cross-, mutual, one thing and another, reciprocal	hyuitvikaxen....mutual admiration hyuixer....reciprocate hyuisa....mutual, reciprocal hyuitif....mutual love
i-....toward the speaker	iber....receive ixer....result
ik-....fully, thoroughly	iktoxer....forget completely iktos....satisfaction ikyebixer....engulf, swallow up completely
i(n)-....three-, tri-, tripl-, tern-	inzyuspar....tricycle inaga....three-dimensional injiba....trimensual insuna....ternary intotan....trinity
iyn-....terci-, third	iyna....terciary iynxer....cut into thirds
iz-....ortho-, recti-, right-, straight-	iznada....rectilinear izguna....orthogonal iztin....orthdoxy izdea....forthright
ja-....ante-, fore-, pre-	jaupya....foregone jauper....precede jadropeka....antebellum
je-....per-, continuously, ever-	jetejer....persevere jeteaxer....watch jexrer....perpetuate
jo-....after-, meta-, post-	joexlen....postprocessing jomir....metasphere jotej....afterlife
jwa-....early-, eo-, preter-, proto-	jwaber....prepare jwader....warn, premonish jwadodin....early history, protohistory jwamola....preternatural jwajoeb....eocene
jwo-....ceno-, late-, latter-, tard-	jwonux....late payment jwoa....tardy jwoteja....cenozoic
ko-....cover-, hidden, secret-, stealth-	koa....covert koexut....spy koyeper....sneak in
kovyo-....pseudo-	kovyotun....pseudoscience
ku-....para-	kuifut....paramour kuteliut....parasite kuteptun....parapsychology
kya-....alternate, dia-, re-, trans-, vari-, cross-	kyaember....relocate kyajoba....diachronic kyatajnad....crossbreed kyatooba....transgendered kyavolza....variegated, motley
kyao-....falteringly, unsteadily	kyaoper....stagger kyaotexer....vacillate
kye-....chance-, hap-, random-	kyea....haphazard kyebyus....chance encounter kyeteater....happen to see kyesauna....of a random type
kyo-....fixed-, still-, stereo-, stat-	kyosaun....stereotype kyopa....stable, static, stationary kyoson....status
lo-....dis-, semantic reversing prefix, un-	lozeb....disequilibrium loyuvlaxer....disengage loyuzyuber....uncoil lomulvyusber....decontaminate
logel-....hetero-, different-	logelsauna....heterogenous logelaxer....differentiate
maz-....bright-	mazteaba....bright-eyed
mial-....hygro-, atmo-, vapori-	mialama....hygrothermal mialnagar....atomometer, vaporimeter
mil-....aqua-, hydro-, water-	milyexun....aquaculture milmaka....hydroelectric miltilsyeb....water glass
mul-....hylo-, substance	mulsana....hylomorphic
o(l)-....a-, dis-, non-, un-, in-	ovyilxwa....unwashed omalza....non-white ototina....atheist otepzexea....inattentive
o(b/p)-....de-, hypo-, off-, sub-, vice-	oper....get off obneg....sublevel obxeb....sous-chef, sub-officer obtyodeb....vice-president
gwo-....micro-, mini-	ogalmor....microcosm ogalteaxer....microscope gowaxer....minimize
ov-....contra-, counter-, dis-, non-, the opposite of, un-	ovalxer....countervail ovper....contravene ovkyin....counterweight ovdat....enemy olovmasbwa....undefended
oy-....-less, a(n)-, without	oytofa...naked oyxer....deprive oytosen....apathy oyteupiba....toothless
oyb-....hypo-, infra-, sub-, under-	oybnadrer....underline oybtomsan....infrastructure oybseuxa....subsonic oybtayoba....hypodermic
oyeb-....ex-, extra-, out-	oyebnad....outline oyebyujber....exclude oyebdoabuer....extradite
oyeyb-....extra-	oyeybdovyaba....extralegal oyeybtadiena....extramarital
oyv-....contra-, opposite, reverse	oyvkuma...opposite oyvder....contradict oyvduer....contraindicate oyvaxer....reverse
tayi(b)-....neuro-, nerve	tayibteptun....neuropsychology tayibyok....neuralgia
teeb-....auri-, oto-, ear-	teebbekut....aurist teeteiteyobtut....otorhinolaryngologist teebyel....earwax
tee(s/x/t)-....audio-, son-, phono-	teesnagen....audiography teestaxdras....phonogram teestun....audiology teexdras....audiogram teetyofwa....inaudible
tei(b)-....nasal, nose, rhino-, aroma-, olfact-, osmo-	teibbok....rhinitis teibyeg....nostril teiz....perfume teizuka....aroma-free teityaf....olfactory sense
tiibil-....blood-, hema-, hemato-, hemo-, sanguin-	tiibililp....hemorrhage tiibiliut....bloodsucker tiibloker....exsanguinate tiibiltun....hematology
tuj-....hypno-, somni-, sopor-	tujbek....hyptotherapy tujbyea....somniferous, soporific
u-....away from the speaker	uber....send uxer....cause
ui-....horizontal, left-right, x-axis	uinab....row, x-axis uinada....horizontal
uib-....back-and-forth, toward-and-away, transmit-receive	uibar....transceiver
uig-....fast-and-slow	uigpar....scooter
uij-....begin-and-end, start-and-stop	uijdaler....stutter
uip-....come-and-go	uipen....traffic, coming and going
uiz-....straight-then-crooked	uizbaser....swagger uizdrer....scribble uizpaser....swerve
u(n)-....four-, quadri-, tetra-, quater-	ungona....quadripartite unnednid....tetrahedron unsuna....quaternary
uyn-....fourth-, quarti-	uynxer....quarter uynjab....quarter (of a year)
ut-....auto-, self-, sui-, ego-	utifon....egoism utgober....autodecrement utfuyix....self-abuse uttujben....suicide
va-....yes	vayovder....convict vabier....accept vatexer....believe
vao-....yes-no	vaoder....decide vaodaler....waffle vaonaza....boolean
vi-....bell-, eu-, fine-, pulchri-	vituzyan....fine arts, beaux arts vidun....euphemism vidrenyan....literature, belles lettres visuana....classic
vo-....non-, neg-	voyafxer....veto voxer....negate voyovder....acquit, declare not guilty
vya-....justi-, recti-, true-, reg-	vyadin....true story vyader....avow vyamol....essence
vyak-....ortho-, correct-	vyakdred....orthography vyakxer....correct
vyo-....mis-, para-, wrong-	vyoyufa....paranoid vyoyux....perfidy vyoyixer....misuse
ya-....more than one, multi-	yaota....communal
yab-....hyper-, supra-, sur-, up-, upper-	yabdom....uptown yabdoneg....upper class yabduzneg....high pitch yabexer....support yabzyobix....hypertension
yabnan-....height-, hypso-, alti-	yabnanagar....hypsometer, altimeter
yag-....long-	yagyiban....long distance yagyeker....strive yagblokea....long-suffering
yan-....co(n)-, fellow-, -mate	yanzena....concentric yanyeker....compete yandit....fellow-citizen
yao(b/p)-....up-and-down	yaopuyser....skip yaopsim....seesaw yaoblir....elevator yaobaser....bounce
ya(on)-....six-, hexa-, sex-	yaonat....sextet yaongun....hexagon yaona....six-fold, sextuple yagol....sextile
yaov-....guilty-or-innocent	yaovder....adjudicate yaovdutyan....jury yaovkader....plead yaovyek....trial
yaoz-....serrated, bumpy, jagged	yaozaxer....serrate yaozgoblar....saw yaozper....bump along
yayb-....supra-	yaybdooba....supranational
yayn-....sex-, sixth	yayna...sixth
ye(on)-....hept-, hepta-, septi-, seven-	yejub....week yeongun....heptagon yeonat....septuplet
ye(b/p)-....en-, endo-, in-, intra-, intro-	yebuzaser.....inflect yebzoytiibufa....intravenous yebyujer....enclode yebtayoba....endodermal yeper....enter yeber....introduce
yeov-....fair or not	yeovdut....umpire
yeyb-....intra-	yeybmepyan....intranet yeybdoeba....intrastate
ye-'....hepto-, seven-, septi-	yejub....week
yeyn-....seventh	yeynxer....split into sevenths
yi(on)-....oct-, eight-	yiona...eight-fold octuple
yib-....far-, tele-, remote	yibsin....televison yibteata....far-sighted yibtrawa....famous
yibaj-....archai-, archeo-, ancient	yibajtun....archaeology,yibajtun....archeology
yiyn-....eighth	yiynxer....divide into eighths
yiz-....beyond, extra-, meta-, out-, para-, past, super-, supra-, trans-, ultra-	yiztyun...metaphor yizeza....paranormal yizmeirat....extraterrestrial yizseux....utrasound
yoon-....five-, penta-, quint-	yoongun....pentagon yoongol...quintile yoon....group of five quintet
yo(b/p)-....down-, hypo-, sub-	yobdom...downtown yoper....go down yobgoler....subdivide
yon-....apart, dis-, se-	yonzyaber....disperse yonxer....separate yonsauna....distinct
yoyn-....fifth-, quinti-	yoynnaga....quintic yoyn....a fifth
yu(n)-....nine-, nona-	yunapa....ninth (in order) yungunid....nonagon yunkunid....nonahedron
yub-....near-, proxi-	yuboj....near future yubna....next yubteas....closeup (view) yubge....almost yubfia....intimate yubgeser....approximate
yui(b/p)-....near-and-far	yuibjo....sooner or later yuibteabar....bifocals yuipoper....travel near and far
yuij-....open-and-shut	yuijar....valve yuijer....blink, wink manyuijer....blink makyuijar....switch
yuyb-....quasi-, pen-, almost	yuybyonmel....peninsula yuybega....quasi-normal
yuon-....ninth-, novi-	yuonat....nonuplet
yuz-....circ-, circum-, peri-, roto-, round-	yuzper....circulate yuznad....perimeter yuzof....wrap-around yuznadrer....circumscribe
za-....ante-, fore-, front-, pre-, pro-	zatim....antechamber zamimuf....foremast zagab....prefix zajuber....procrastinate
zao-....back-and-forth, front-and-back	zaopaser....wobble zaokuper....slalom zaopyoser....pendulate
zay-....forth-, pro-, forward, ahead, north	zaypuyser....skip ahead zaypuxer....propel zayper....go forward, procede zayupea....forthcoming zamer....north
ze-....mid-, central, medio-	zetej....midlife zepoxer....interrupt, stop midway zetem....central hall
zey-....cross-, meta-, over-, trans-, across	zeyper....transit, get across zeynod....crosspoint zeytyun....metaphor
zi-....right, east	zim....right side zimera....eastern
zo-....back-, hind-, retro-, south	zotib....back zotiub....hindquarters zonapa....retrograde zomer....south
zoy-....back-, retro-, re-	zoyper....recede, go back zoybeler....carry back zoyzyublen....backspin
zu-....left-, west-	zutinut....leftist zukum....left side zumera....western
zui-....left-and-right, zig-zag, east-west	zuibyoser....dangle, hang left-and-right zuiper....zigzag zuituyaba....ambidextrous zuimera....east-west
zya-....-wide, wide-, broad-, all about	zyauber....broadcast zyateaba....wide-eyed zyasauna....general zyapoper....cruise, wander zyamira....global, worldwide
zye-....per-, thorough-, thru-, trans-	zyetejer....live through, experience zyeteaxer....peruse zyeteatyafwa....transparent zyemep....thoroughfare zyeper....permeate, transit
zyo-....narrow, steno-	zyotepa....narrow-minded zyoteat....tunnel vision zyoyija....stenopeic
zyu-....cyclo-, rot-, round-, gyro	zyutim....rotunda zyusem....roundtable zyuper....cycle, gyrate, rotate

Suffixes

Mirad has semantic stub suffixes, derivational suffixes, and normal semantic suffixes.

Semantic Stub Suffixes

Semantic stub suffixes are generally formed from the last letters of a base word minus the initial consonant. They serve to put a word into some category, such as liquid, place, person, or material.

Semantic Stub Suffixes

SUFFIX STUB	SUFFIX FULL FORM	SUFFIXED EXAMPLE < BASE WORD
-il....liquid, drink	mil....water	teabil....tear  <  teab....eye teubil....saliva  <  teub....mouth tayebil....sweat  <  tayeb....skin mamil....rain  <  mam....sky
-al....gas	mal....air	tiebal....breath  <  tieb....lung
-(e)l....food	tel....food	supel....pork  <  supet....swine taol  <  taob....flesh fel  <  feb....fruit
-ul....stuff	mul....substance	vixul....cosmetic  <  vix-....to beautify bekul....medecine  <  bek....treatment
-yel....oil, gel, wax, pulp	yel....oil	olfyel....olive oil  <  olfeb....olive appelatyel....wax  <  appelat....bee magyel....grease  <  mag....fire bekyel....salve  <  bek....treatment megyel....cement  <  meg....stone yanyel....paste  <  yan....together
-am....house	tam....house	apatam....chicken coop  <  apat....chicken apellatam....beehive  <  apellat....bee melyexam....farmhouse  <  melyex....agriculture datibam....hostel  <  datib....guest-reception
-(e)m....place	nem....place	vobyexem....plantation, farm  <  vob....plant + yex....work vabem....field  <  vab....grass abem....top, surface  <  ab....above, upper zem....middle  <  ze(a)....middle tim....room
-im....room	tim....room	tulim  <  tul....cuisine tujim....bedroom  <  tuj....sleep
-um....cell, booth	tum....compartment	pexum....cage  <  pexer....catch ilzyapixum....shower stall  <  ilzyapix....shower
-yem....space	nyem....enclosure	yomyem....icebox  <  yom....ice
-yeb....container	nyeb....container	zyeb....bottle  <  zye(f)....glass vosyeb....vase  <  vos....flower
-of....material	nof....cloth	tof....clothes  <  t-....human misof....curtain  <  mis....window faof....wood  <  fa(b)-....tree tayof....leather  <  tayo(b)....skin
-ov....linen	nov....linen	teyov....collar  <  teyob....neck
-ar....instrument	sar....tool	par....cart  <  p-....motion zyupar....rotor  <  zyup....turn gobrar....knife  <  gobrar....cut jwobar....watch  <  jwob....hour
-ir....machine	sir....machine	drir....typewriter  <  dr-....write gwobir....clock
-ur....large machine	sur....engine	purr....car jwoburr....grandfather clock  <  jwob....hour
-(u)n....thing	sun....thing	dun....word  <  d-....utter, say gofrun....piece, scrap  <  gofrer....rip, shread, tear zyiun....plaque, plate  <  zyia....flat vyun....spot  <  vyua....dirty
-on....abstract thing	son....issue	yovon....tort, wrong  <  yov....guilt
yen....manner, kind	byen....manner	texyen....opinion  <  tex....thought hiyen....this way, thus  <  hi-....this esyen....status  <  es-....exist
-in....-ism	tin....doctrine	totin....theism, religion  <  tot-....god Kristin....Christianity  <  Krist....Christ vyisatin....puritanism  <  vysiat....puritan, clean person oytofin....nudism  <  oytofa....nude
-ufyeg....cylinder	mufyeg....pipe	manufyeg....candle  <  man....light tiibufyeg....artery  <  tiib....heart milufyeg....toilet  <  mil....water movufyeg....cheminee  <  mov....smoke
-ab....government	dab....government	ditab....democracy  <  dit....citizen
-eb....leader	deb....leader	xeb....boss  <  x-....do tameb....master of the house  <  tam....house
-ub....branch	tub....arm	patub....wing  <  pat....bird
-ad....language	-a + d(alzeyn)....language	Fransad....French (language)
-uz....jewelry	nuz....jewel	teyobuz....necklace  <  teyob....neck teebuz....earring  <  teeb....ear
-u(er)....give	buer....give	tiebaluer....exhale  <  tieb....lung + al....air
-i(er)....take	bier....take	tiebalier....inhale  <  tieb....lung + al....air
-ui(er)....exchange	buier....exchange	tiebaluier....breathe  <  tieb....lung + al....air

Derviational Suffixes

Mirad has only a few derivational suffixes, i.e. suffixes that change the part of speech.

Derivational Suffixes

DERIVATIONAL SUFFIX	FUNCTION	BASE WORD --> SUFFIXED DERIVATION
-er	NOUN --> VERBAL INFINITIVE	sag....count --> sager....to count
-n	PRESENT TENSE VERB --> VERBAL NOUN (GERUND) ADJECTIVE --> ABSTRACT NOUN	yexe....(he/she/...) works --> yexen....working via....beautiful --> vian....beauty yuba....near --> yuban....proximity, nearness
-a	NOUN --> ADJECTIVE ACTIVE VERB --> VERBAL ADJECTIVE (PRESENT PARTICIPLE) PAST PASSIVE VERB --> PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE)	mor....universe --> mora....universal ake....wins --> akea....winning teatwa....was seen -->teatwaa (or, shortened to: teatwa....seen)
-ya	INTRANSITIVE VERB STEM --> PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE	ip-....go away --> ipya....gone away
-yea	VERB STEM --> HABITUAL PRESENT PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE)	zaypas-....progress --> zaypasyea....progressive
-y	ADJECTIVE --> ADVERB	iga....quick --> igay....quickly tea-....knowing -->teay....knowingly
-ut	VERB STEM --> ANIMATE AGENT NOUN one who Xes, -er	ak-....win --> akut ....winner
-us	VERB STEM --> INANIMATE AGENT NOUN thing that Xes, -er	gol-....divide --> golus ....divisor

*Derivational affixes change the part of speech of a base word, whereas inflexional affixes change the status of a word within a grammatical paradigm. Verb tense/mood/voice affixes and the plural marker -i fall under the latter category.

Normal Semantic Suffixes

• Augmentative Suffixes

Augmentative Suffixes

AUGMENTATIVE SUFFIX	BASE WORD	SUFFIXED DERIVATION
-ag (augmentative)	tam....house	tamag....mansion
-ayg (affectionate augmentative)	sem....chair	semayg....big old chair
-yag (pejorative augmentative)	apet....horse	apetyag....nag

• Diminutive Suffixes

Diminutive Suffixes

DIMINUTIVE SUFFIX	BASE WORD	SUFFIXED DERIVATION
-og (diminutive)	tam....house	tamog....hut
-oyg (affectionate diminutive)	tam....house	tamoyg....cottage
-yog (pejorative diminutive)	tam....house	tamyog....shack
-et (a smaller person)	twob....man	twobet....boy
-es (thing of lesser importance)	nas....money	nases....change, coin
-ud (child of, offspring)	tob....man	tobud....infant

• Semantic Adjectival Suffixes

Semantic Adjectival Suffixes

ADJECTIVAL SUFFIX	MEANING	BASE WORD	SUFFIXED DERIVATION
-a	mor....universe	related to, -al, -ic	mora....universal
-aya	miek....dust	full of, -ous, -y	miekaya....dusty
-oya	vyun....spot	empty of, -less, -free	vyunoya....spotless
-ika	miek....dust	full of, -ous, -y	miekika....dusty
-uka	miek....dust	empty of, -less, -free	miekuka....dust-free
-yea	vyod....lie	given to doing X, -ive	vyodyea....mendacious, given to lying
-yena	tat....angel	like, -ly, -ic	tatyena....angelic

• Other Semantic Suffixes

Other Semantic Suffixes

SUFFIX	BASE WORD	DERIVATION
-tun....science, ...ology	tej....life	tejtun....biology
-tut....-ologist, expert, -ist	dar....language	dartut....linquist
-tuin....theory	tob....mar	martuin....astrology
-yan....collection, aggregate	fab....tree	fabyan....forest
-tyen....trade, -ics	sir....machine	sirtyen....mechanics
-if....pet name	twed....father	twedif....papa
ifa....-philic, -loving	dyes....book	dyesifa....bibliophilic
ifwa....liked by	tyod....people	tyodifwa....popular
ufa....-phobic, -hating	toyb....woman	toybufa....misogynous
ufwa....hated by	tyod....people	tyodufwa....unpopular
yafa....able to	tyoyap-....walk	tyoyapyafa....ambulatory
yafwa....possible to	teat-....see	teatyafwa....visible
yofa....unable to	teat-....see	teatyofa....blind
yofwa....impossible to	dye-....read	dyeyofwa....illegible
yika....hard of...ing	teet-....hear	teetyika....hard of hearing
yikwa....hard to	teet-....hear	teetyikwa....hard to hear
yuka....easy at...ing	vatex-....believe	vatexyuka....gullible
yukwa....easily...ed	test-....understand	testyukwa....easily understood
yufa....fearful of, -phobic	tot....god	totyufa....god-fearing
yufwa....feared	hyat....everybody	hyatyufwa....feared by all
yiva....free to	kebi-....choo