Fractals/Computer graphic techniques/2D/algorithms

List:

• 2D Plane transformations
  • 2D to 3D
    • heightmaps
    • slope
    • lighting

• Morphological operations on binary images
  • morphological closing = dilation followed by erosion
  • morphological opening = erosion followed by dilation

Image processing

• [[http://graficaobscura.com/matrix/index.html Matrix Operations for Image Processing by Paul Haeberli Nov 1993]

2D Convolution Animation

Algorithms

• raster algorithms

Postprocessing

• Two types of edge detection
• Pseudo-3D projections
• Star field generator
• Random dot stereograms (aka Magic Eye)
• Motion blur for animations
• Interlacing
• Embossing
• Antialiasing
• Palette emulation to allow color cycling on true-color displays
• True color emulation that provides dithering on 256-color display

dense image

Dense image

• downscaling with gamma correction
• path finding
• aliasing
• changing algorithm ( representation function) from discrete to continous, like from level set method of escape time to continous ( DEM )

  "the denser the area, the more heavy the anti-aliasing have to be in order to make it look good."  knighty

  "the details are smaller than pixel spacing, so all that remains is the bands of colour shift from period-doubling of features making it even denser"  claude

path finding

path finding

• old fractal forums : pathfinding-in-the-mandelbrot-set/
• fractalforums.org : pathfinding-in-the-mandelbrot-set-revisited
• 5-ways-to-find-the-shortest-path-in-a-graph by Johannes Baum
• mathreference - graph

Algorithms

• Depth-First Search (DFS) = the simplest algorithm
• Breadth-First Search (BFS)
• Bidirectional Search
• Dijkstra's algorithm (or Dijkstra's Shortest Path First algorithm, SPF algorithm)
  • programiz : dijkstra-algorithm
  • dyclassroom : dijkstra-algorithm-finding-shortest-path
• Bellman-Ford Algorithm

How to tell whether a point is to the right or left side of a line ?

/* 
  How to tell whether a point is to the right or left side of a line ?

 http://stackoverflow.com/questions/1560492/how-to-tell-whether-a-point-is-to-the-right-or-left-side-of-a-line

  a, b = points
  line = ab
 pont to check = z

  position = sign((Bx - Ax) * (Y - Ay) - (By - Ay) * (X - Ax))
  It is 0 on the line, and +1 on one side, -1 on the other side.

*/

double CheckSide(double Zx, double Zy, double Ax, double Ay, double Bx, double By)
{
  return ((Bx - Ax) * (Zy - Ay) - (By - Ay) * (Zx - Ax));

}

Testing if point is inside triangle

• description
• javascript code

/* 
c console program 
gcc t.c -Wall
./a.out

*/

# include <stdio.h>

// 3 points define triangle 
double Zax = -0.250000000000000;
double Zay = 0.433012701892219;
// left when y
double Zlx = -0.112538773749444;  
double Zly = 0.436719687479814 ;

double Zrx = -0.335875821657728;
double Zry = 0.316782798339332;

// points to test 
// = inside triangle 
double Zx = -0.209881783739630;
double Zy =   +0.4;

// outside triangle 
double Zxo = -0.193503885412548  ;
double Zyo = 0.521747636163664;

double Zxo2 = -0.338750000000000;
double Zyo2 = +0.440690927838329;

// ============ http://stackoverflow.com/questions/2049582/how-to-determine-a-point-in-a-2d-triangle
// In general, the simplest (and quite optimal) algorithm is checking on which side of the half-plane created by the edges the point is.
double sign (double  x1, double y1,  double x2, double y2, double x3, double y3)
{
    return (x1 - x3) * (y2 - y3) - (x2 - x3) * (y1 - y3);
}

int  PointInTriangle (double x, double y, double x1, double y1, double x2, double y2, double x3, double y3)
{
    double  b1, b2, b3;

    b1 = sign(x, y, x1, y1, x2, y2) < 0.0;
    b2 = sign(x, y, x2, y2, x3, y3) < 0.0;
    b3 = sign(x, y, x3, y3, x1, y1) < 0.0;

    return ((b1 == b2) && (b2 == b3));
}

int Describe_Position(double Zx, double Zy){
if (PointInTriangle( Zx, Zy, Zax, Zay, Zlx, Zly, Zrx, Zry))
  printf(" Z is inside \n");
  else printf(" Z is outside \n");

return 0;
}

// ======================================

int main(void){

Describe_Position(Zx, Zy);
Describe_Position(Zxo, Zyo);
Describe_Position(Zxo2, Zyo2);

return 0;
}

Orientation and area of the triangle

Orientation and area of the triangle : how to do it ?

// gcc t.c -Wall
// ./a.out
# include <stdio.h>

// http://ncalculators.com/geometry/triangle-area-by-3-points.htm
double GiveTriangleArea(double xa, double ya, double xb, double yb, double xc, double yc)
{
return ((xb*ya-xa*yb)+(xc*yb-xb*yc)+(xa*yc-xc*ya))/2.0;
}

/*

wiki Curve_orientation
[http://mathoverflow.net/questions/44096/detecting-whether-directed-cycle-is-clockwise-or-counterclockwise]

The orientation of a triangle (clockwise/counterclockwise) is the sign of the determinant

matrix = { {1 , x1, y1}, {1 ,x2, y2} , {1,  x3, y3}}

where 
(x_1,y_1), (x_2,y_2), (x_3,y_3)$ 
are the Cartesian coordinates of the three vertices of the triangle.

:<math>\mathbf{O} = \begin{bmatrix}

1 & x_{A} & y_{A} \\
1 & x_{B} & y_{B} \\
1 & x_{C} & y_{C}\end{bmatrix}.</math>

A formula for its determinant may be obtained, e.g., using the method of [[cofactor expansion]]:
:<math>\begin{align}
\det(O) &= 1\begin{vmatrix}x_{B}&y_{B}\\x_{C}&y_{C}\end{vmatrix}
-x_{A}\begin{vmatrix}1&y_{B}\\1&y_{C}\end{vmatrix}
+y_{A}\begin{vmatrix}1&x_{B}\\1&x_{C}\end{vmatrix} \\
&= x_{B}y_{C}-y_{B}x_{C}-x_{A}y_{C}+x_{A}y_{B}+y_{A}x_{C}-y_{A}x_{B} \\
&= (x_{B}y_{C}+x_{A}y_{B}+y_{A}x_{C})-(y_{A}x_{B}+y_{B}x_{C}+x_{A}y_{C}).
\end{align}
</math>

If the determinant is negative, then the polygon is oriented clockwise.  If the determinant is positive, the polygon is oriented counterclockwise.  The determinant  is non-zero if points A, B, and C are non-[[collinear]].  In the above example, with points ordered A, B, C, etc., the determinant is negative, and therefore the polygon is clockwise.

*/

double IsTriangleCounterclockwise(double xa, double ya, double xb, double yb, double xc, double yc)
{return  ((xb*yc + xa*yb +ya*xc) - (ya*xb +yb*xc + xa*yc)); }

int DescribeTriangle(double xa, double ya, double xb, double yb, double xc, double yc)
{
 double t = IsTriangleCounterclockwise( xa,  ya, xb,  yb,  xc,  yc);
 double a = GiveTriangleArea( xa,  ya, xb,  yb,  xc,  yc);
 if (t>0)  printf("this triangle is oriented counterclockwise,     determinent = %f ; area = %f\n", t,a);
 if (t<0)  printf("this triangle is oriented clockwise,            determinent = %f; area = %f\n", t,a);
 if (t==0) printf("this triangle is degenerate: colinear or identical points, determinent = %f; area = %f\n", t,a);

 return 0;
}

int main()
{
 // clockwise oriented triangles 
 DescribeTriangle(-94,   0,  92,  68, 400, 180); // https://www-sop.inria.fr/prisme/fiches/Arithmetique/index.html.en
 DescribeTriangle(4.0, 1.0, 0.0, 9.0, 8.0, 3.0); // clockwise orientation https://people.sc.fsu.edu/~jburkardt/datasets/triangles/tex5.txt
 
 //  counterclockwise oriented triangles
 DescribeTriangle(-50.00, 0.00, 50.00,  0.00, 0.00,  0.02); // a "cap" triangle. This example has an area of 1.
 DescribeTriangle(0.0,  0.0, 3.0,  0.0, 0.0,  4.0); // a right triangle. This example has an area of (?? 3 ??)  =  6
 DescribeTriangle(4.0, 1.0, 8.0, 3.0, 0.0, 9.0);  //      https://people.sc.fsu.edu/~jburkardt/datasets/triangles/tex1.txt
 DescribeTriangle(-0.5, 0.0,  0.5,  0.0, 0.0,  0.866025403784439); // an equilateral triangle. This triangle has an area of sqrt(3)/4.

 // degenerate triangles 
 DescribeTriangle(1.0, 0.0, 2.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0); // This triangle is degenerate: 3 colinear points. https://people.sc.fsu.edu/~jburkardt/datasets/triangles/tex6.txt
 DescribeTriangle(4.0, 1.0, 0.0, 9.0, 4.0, 1.0); //2 identical points 
 DescribeTriangle(2.0, 3.0, 2.0, 3.0, 2.0, 3.0); // 3 identical points

 return 0; 
}

Testing if point is inside polygon

• stackoverflow
• description by W Muła
• point_in_polygon by Patrick Glauner
  • A Simple and Correct Even-Odd Algorithm for the Point-in-Polygon Problem for Complex Polygons by Michael Galetzka, Patrick O. Glauner
  • c code

Point_in_polygon_problem : image and source code

/*

gcc p.c -Wall
./a.out

----------- git --------------------
cd existing_folder
git init
git remote add origin git@gitlab.com:adammajewski/PointInPolygonTest_c.git
git add .
git commit
git push -u origin master

*/

#include <stdio.h>

#define LENGTH 6

/*

Argument	Meaning
nvert	Number of vertices in the polygon. Whether to repeat the first vertex at the end is discussed below.
vertx, verty	Arrays containing the x- and y-coordinates of the polygon's vertices.
testx, testy	X- and y-coordinate of the test point.

https://www.ecse.rpi.edu/Homepages/wrf/Research/Short_Notes/pnpoly.html
PNPOLY - Point Inclusion in Polygon Test
W. Randolph Franklin (WRF)

	

I run a semi-infinite ray horizontally (increasing x, fixed y) out from the test point, 
and count how many edges it crosses. 
At each crossing, the ray switches between inside and outside. 
This is called the Jordan curve theorem.
The case of the ray going thru a vertex is handled correctly via a careful selection of inequalities. 
Don't mess with this code unless you're familiar with the idea of Simulation of Simplicity. 
This pretends to shift the ray infinitesimally down so that it either clearly intersects, or clearly doesn't touch. 
Since this is merely a conceptual, infinitesimal, shift, it never creates an intersection that didn't exist before, 
and never destroys an intersection that clearly existed before.

The ray is tested against each edge thus:

Is the point in the half-plane to the left of the extended edge? and
Is the point's Y coordinate within the edge's Y-range?
Handling endpoints here is tricky.

I run a semi-infinite ray horizontally (increasing x, fixed y) out from the test point, 
and count how many edges it crosses. At each crossing, 
the ray switches between inside and outside. This is called the Jordan curve theorem.
The variable c is switching from 0 to 1 and 1 to 0 each time the horizontal ray crosses any edge. 
So basically it's keeping track of whether the number of edges crossed are even or odd. 
0 means even and 1 means odd.

*/

int pnpoly(int nvert, double *vertx, double *verty, double testx, double testy)
{
  int i, j, c = 0;
  for (i = 0, j = nvert-1; i < nvert; j = i++) {
    if ( ((verty[i]>testy) != (verty[j]>testy)) &&
	 (testx < (vertx[j]-vertx[i]) * (testy-verty[i]) / (verty[j]-verty[i]) + vertx[i]) )
       c = !c;
  }

  return c;
}

void CheckPoint(int nvert, double *vertx, double *verty, double testx, double testy){

int flag;

flag =  pnpoly(nvert, vertx, verty, testx, testy);

 switch(flag){
   case 0  : printf("outside\n"); break;
   case 1  : printf("inside\n"); break;
   default : printf(" ??? \n");
 }
}

int main (){

// values from http://stackoverflow.com/questions/217578/how-can-i-determine-whether-a-2d-point-is-within-a-polygon
// number from 0 to (LENGTH-1)
double zzx[LENGTH] = { 13.5,  6.0, 13.5, 42.5, 39.5, 42.5};
double zzy[LENGTH] = {100.0, 70.5, 41.5, 56.5, 69.5, 84.5};

CheckPoint(LENGTH, zzx, zzy, zzx[4]-0.001, zzy[4]);
CheckPoint(LENGTH, zzx, zzy, zzx[4]+0.001, zzy[4]);

return 0;
}

curve

types:

• closed/open
• with/without multiple points

methods

• tracing /drawing : Generating Discrete Curves
• sketching
• sampling
• Pathfinding or pathing is the plotting, by a computer application, of the shortest route between two points
• clipping
• Approximation of digitized curves (with cubic Bézier splines )
• curve fitting
• Mending broken lines
• edge detection

Examples

• line
  • bresenhams-drawing-algorithms
  • antyaliasing
  • thick line
    • Murphy's Modified Bresenham Line Drawing Algorithm
• circle

curve drawing

• Curve-Drawing Algorithms for Raster Displays by JERRY VAN AKEN and MARK NOVAK
• A Rasterizing Algorithm for Drawing Curves by Alois Zingl Wien, 2012
• Curve-Drawing Algorithms for Raster Displays by JERRY VAN AKEN and MARK NOVAK
• A* Pathfinding for Beginners By Patrick Lester (Updated July 18, 2005)
• Max K. Agoston Computer Graphics and Geometric Modeling Implementation and Algorithms

neighborhood variants of 2D algorithms:

• 8-way stepping (8WS) for 8-direction neighbors of a pixel p(x, y)
• 4-way stepping (4WS) 4-direction neighbors of a pixel p(x, y)

• 2D neighborhood
• 

  4

• 

  8

curve sampling

• uniform = gives equidistant points
• adaptive. " an adaptive method for sampling the domain with respect to local curvature. Samples concentration is in proportion to this curvature, resulting in a more efficient approximation—in the limit, a flat curve is approximated by merely two endpoints."

• ocaml-curve-sampling by Christophe Troestler
• xahlee : adaptive_sampling_plot_math_curve

Border, boundary, contour

• Filling contour
• Finds contours in a binary image

contour models

• snakes = active contour models

border tracing

• Tracing Boundaries in 2D Images by V. Kovalevsky
• wikipedia : Boundary tracing
• Calculating contour curves for 2D scalar fields
  • the marching squares algorithm for tracing contour curves on a scalar 2D field

SDF Signed Distance Function

• Define 3 shapes via there Signed Distance Function
• Signed_distance_function in wikipedia
• dist functions 2d by I Quilez
• i quilez : dist grad functions 2d

test external tangency of 2 circles

/*
 distance between 2 points 
  z1 = x1 + y1*I
  z2 = x2 + y2*I
  en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distance#Geometry
 
*/ 
 
double GiveDistance(int x1, int y1, int x2, int y2){
  return sqrt((x1-x2)*(x1-x2) + (y1-y2)*(y1-y2));
}

/*
mutually and externally tangent circles
mathworld.wolfram.com/TangentCircles.html
Two circles are mutually and externally tangent if distance between their centers is equal to the sum of their radii

*/

double TestTangency(int x1, int y1, int r1, int x2, int y2, int r2){
  double distance;

  distance = GiveDistance(x1, y1, x2, y2);
  return ( distance - (r1+r2));
// return should be zero
}

References

• c programs from GraphicsGems book
• https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/fundamentals-of-algorithms/#GeometricAlgorithms
• VTK Book