Fractals/Iterations in the complex plane/MandelbrotSetExterior/ParameterExternalRay
Tuning external ray
- DOUADY’S MAGIC FORMULA[3]: Claude : "Douady's magic formula maps rays from the cardioid to the real axis by prefixing binary expansion with 10 or 01 depending if the angle is below or above 1/2. The paper involves veins and Hubbard trees" [4]
landing
editThe Douady-Hubbard landing theorem for periodic external for a complex polynomial f with bounded postcritical set:
- every periodic external ray lands at a repelling or parabolic periodic point
- conversely every repelling or parabolic point is the landing point of at least one periodic external ray
Q&A
editrelation between parameter and dynamic rays
editwake
editMandel demo 3 ( external ray) page 8
For a p-periodic angle, the corresponding dynamic ray of a connected Julia set lands at a repelling or parabolic point with period dividing p. The corresponding parameter ray lands at the root of a hyperbolic component with period p.
To show this, consider a parameter c0 where the parameter ray accumulates. For parameters c on this ray, the corresponding dynamic ray branches. If the dynamic ray for c0 landed at a repelling periodic point, it would land without branching also for c ≈ c0 by the Implicit Function Theorem and a pullback argument. This contradiction shows that the dynamic ray for the parameter c0 must land at a parabolic point, and c0 is a root.
In fact, exactly two parameter rays with periodic angles land at every root. This was shown
- by Adrien Douady and John Hamal Hubbard, using Fatou coordinates for the parabolic implosion (Chapter 2).
- Combinatorial proofs were given by Dierk Schleicher and John Milnor.
For parameters c in the wake between the two parameter rays:
- the two dynamic rays with the same angles land together,
- and the critical value z = c is always in the wake between them, even if there are more dynamic rays landing.
The left image shows the parameter rays with the 2-periodic angles 1/3 and 2/3, which land at the root of the period-2 component. The cross indicates the center c = -1.
The right image shows the corresponding filled Julia set, the "basilica," and the two dynamic rays landing at the repelling fixed point αc . The cross is at the critical value z = c. Now you shall see the Julia sets for the centers corresponding to the p-periodic angles 1/(2p-1) and 2/(2p-1), and all parameter rays with these denomiantors: Hit Return or push the Go-button to increase the period (2...9).
Subdivision rule
editHow to compute dynamic external rays that land on the critical point of the dendrite Julia set?
Steps:
- the preperiodic angle (decimal fraction with even denominator )
- find on the parameter plane the landing point of the parameter external ray which is Misiurewicz point:
- on the dynamic plane:
- landing point of the ray with angle is critical value:
- on the critical point z = 0 land rays with angles: and
Examples of parameter rays:[5]
- Ray for angle lands on the point from the parameter plane. It is tip of the main antenna ( end of 1/2 limb).
- Ray for angle lands on the point from the parameter plane. It is the first tip of wake 1/3.
- Ray for angle lands on the point from the parameter plane. It is the last tip of wake 1/3
- Ray for angle lands on the point from the parameter plane. It is the principle Misiurewicz point ( branch point or hub) of wake 1/4.
- Ray for angle lands on the point from the parameter plane. It is the principle Misiurewicz point ( branch point or hub) of wake 1/3.
- Ray for angle lands on the point from the parameter plane. It is the principle Misiurewicz point ( branch point or hub) of wake 1/7.
Partition of the dynamic plane by dynamic rays is related with the kneading sequence
-
1/4 -
1/6 -
9/56 -
129/16256
principal Misiurewicz point rule
edit
Notes from demo 3 (external rays) page 9/12 from program mandel by Wolf Jung
The parameter rays with the angles 1/7 and 2/7 land at the root of a period-3 component, which is of satellite type with rotation number 1/3.
For all parameters c in the wake between the rays
- for c in the 1/3-limb of the Mandelbrot set,
- for c equal to the principle Misiurewicz point of the wake
the dynamic rays with the angles 1/7, 2/7, and 4/7:
- land together at the repelling fixed point
- the critical value z = c is between the first two rays.
We shall compute the external angles of certain preimages of fixed point alpha under .
Note that an angle has two preimages under doubling modulo 1, .
Point is the only preimage of different from the fixed point itself.
The angle 1/7 has the preimages (1/7)/2 = 1/14 and (1/7 + 1)/2 = 4/7. The latter angle belongs to , so 1/14 is an external angle of .
In the same way, the other angles 9/14 and 11/14 are obtained. The rays are drawn blue.
Move z to that preimage of between the rays for 2/7 and 4/7. The angle 1/14 has the preimages (1/14)/2 = 1/28 and (1/14 + 1)/2 = 15/28. Only the latter angle is in the chosen interval. The other two external angles of z are 9/28 and 11/28. The rays are drawn magenta.
Now z is the preimage between the rays for 1/7 and 2/7. By taking preimages in this interval, the external angles 9/56, 11/56, and 15/56 are obtained. The rays are drawn red.
Rays with preperiodic angles, i.e., even denominators, land at preperiodic points in the dynamic plane, or at Misiurewicz points in the parameter plane. For these parameters, the critical value is preperiodic under the iteration of fc(z).
| z | orbit portrait | description |
|---|---|---|
| -0.327586178699357 +0.577756453298949 i | (1/7, 2/7, 4/7) | repelling fixed point alpha |
| +0.327586178699356 -0.577756453298949 i | (1/14, 9/14, 11/14) | preimage: |
| -1.005359779818338 +0.762932332734299 i | (9/28, 11/28, 15/28 ) | a(z) |
| -0.101096363845622 +0.956286510809142 i | (9/56, 11/56, and 15/56) | a(z) |
| -0.000000003174826 +0.000000002063599 i | (9/56, 11/56, and 15/56) | a(z) ; it should be critical point z = 0 |
| -0.728941649258717 +0.655941740822478 i | a(z) | |
| -0.184581740009785 +0.813582020547489 i | a(z) | |
| -0.202294024682997 +0.352715534938011 i | a(z) | |
| -0.505370243253601 +0.597157217578291 i | a(z) | |
| -0.261224737974777 +0.687395259758146 i | a(z) | |
| -0.276433581450372 +0.486357789166200 i | a(z) |
symbolic dynamic
edit- Symbolic Dynamics of Quadratic Polynomials. Version of July 27, 2011. Henk Bruin, Alexandra Kaffl and Dierk Schleicher
idea
edit- take a segment of straight ray ( near infinity )
- pull it back toward boundary of Mandelbrot set
How to aproximate external rays?
edit- binary decomposition method for Julia set ( BDM/J)
- field lines of the scalar field ( potential)
- SAM = Stripe Average Method is basically a cheap way to calculate an angle.
-
BDM, some rays can be seen -
boundaries of BDM -
field lines -
SAM
In BDM images the external rays of angles (measured in turns):
can be seen as borders of subsets.
What means to draw external ray ?
editIt means:
- calculate (approximate) DS points of ray. The result is the set of complex numbers ( points on the parameter plane ), use numerical algotrithm
- join points by line segments,[6] use graphical algorithm )
This will give an approximation of ray .
trace an external ray for angle t in turns, which means ( description by Claude Heiland-Allen)[7]
- starting at a large circle (e.g. r = 65536, x = r cos(2 pi t), y = r sin(2 pi t))
- following the escape lines (like the edges of binary decomposition colouring with large escape radius) in towards the Mandelbrot set.
this algorithm is O(period^2), which means doubling the period takes 4x as long, so it's only really feasible for periods up to a few 1000.
How to compute one point of the ray ?
editBy solving polynomial equation
with numerical methods. The root of above equation is point .
It is a point of the external parameter ray
or
Using Newton method ( iteration ) one can compute approximation of point
What one needs to start :
- arbitrarily chosen external angle of the ray one wants to draw. Angle is usually given in turns
- value of function P ( which approximates Boettcher mapping ) and its derivative P'
- starting point ( initial approximation )
- stopping rule ( criteria to stop iteration ): Ray tracing has a natural stopping condition: when the ray enters the atom domain with period p, Newton's method is very likely to converge to the nucleus at its center.[8]
When ray lands ?
edit"The rays get closer and closer to the boundary, but don't reach it in finite time - for a more exact boundary point you need to switch to different methods when the ray is close enough. For points on the boundary of hyperbolic components, split the internal angled address (computable from the angle) into island and child path components, when tracing the ray to the parent island use atom domain test (to see if Newton's method is likely to converge to the right place) and switch to Newton's method to find the nucleus of the parent island and then trace internal rays through the chain of connected components to the desired boundary point.
For Misiurewicz points, there is probably a similar test to the atom domain test after which point Newton's method will converge to the desired location (though rays to Misiurewicz points tend to converge much more quickly than rays to roots of hyperbolic components anyway). The atom domain test checks that the iteration count of the last minimum of |z| is the same as the period of the ray." Claude Heiland-Allen[9]
So ray does not "land" in the finite time. Landing point can be denoted as
Algorithms
edit
tracing rays
edit- outwards: "External Rays of the form 2pi*n/32, on top of the modulus of the potential gradient. For each point c, a path is created that follows the direction of the gradient of the potential. Each step size is proportional to the distance estimation to M. When the point is far enough of M, it's phase aproximates the phase of phi(c)." Inigo Quilez[12]
- inwards : "The drawing method : ... the path is followed in reverse order: from the infinity towards M, following the minus gradient."
Tracing ray
- inwards = from infinity towards Mandelbrot set
- outwards = from point near Mandelbrot set towards infinity
Collecting bits of external angle's binary expansion when crossing dwell bands ( boundaries of level sets):
- inwards: add bit at the end of binary expansion
- outwards: add the bit at the beginning of binary expansion
crossing dwell bands ( boundaries of level sets)
- when ray value is changing it's integer part
See also
- binary decomposition
- reading bits from binary decomposition = collecting bits of external angle's binary expansion
in
edit- When tracing inwards, one peels off the most-significant bit (aka angle doubling) each time the ray crosses a dwell band (integer part of normalized iteration count increases by 1).
trace an external ray for angle t in turns, which means ( description by Claude Heiland-Allen)[13]
- starting at a large circle (e.g. r = 65536, x = r cos(2 pi t), y = r sin(2 pi t))
- following the escape lines (like the edges of binary decomposition colouring with large escape radius) in towards the Mandelbrot set.
this algorithm is O(period^2), which means doubling the period takes 4x as long, so it's only really feasible for periods up to a few 1000.
out
edit
"you need to trace a ray outwards, which means using different C values, and the bits come in reverse order, first the deepest bit from the iteration count of the start pixel, then move C outwards along the ray (perhaps using the newton's method of mandel-exray.pdf in reverse), repeat until no more bits left. you move C a fractional iteration count each time, and collect bits when crossing integer dwell boundaries" Claude Heiland-Allen
Newton method
edit- using Newton method
- description by Tomoki Kawahira [14]
- tracing inward ( from infinity toward Mandelbrot set) = ray-in
- arbitrary precision ( mpfr) with dynamic precision adjustment by Claude Heiland-Allen
variables
edit- r = radial parameter = radius ( see complex potential )
- m = radial index = index of point along ray, integer
- j = sharpness = number of points on the dwell band, integer
- k = integer depth = number of dwell bands, integer
- d = m/S = real depth, floating point number ( name d is not used by Kawahira)
- l = index of Newton iteration ( name l is not used by Kawahira)
- n = index of iteration for computing Newton map
Names are from T Kawahira description
Radial parameter r
editconstant values
edit- S = =
- D = =
- R = ER = Escape Radius
- DS = = number of points
ranges
edit- sharpness :
- radial index :
- depth :
- ray's radius ( subset):
- iterations :
- quadratic :
- Newton :
sequences
editm-sequences ( along the ray toward the Mandelbrot set):
Newton sequences = l-sequences, here m is constant:
- from initial value toward an approximation of
Maps
editr map
edit
compare it with inverse iteration on c=0 dynamic plane
Depth
editUsing fixed integer D (maximal depth ) :[15]
and fixed maximal value of radial parameter ( escape radius = ER ) :
one can compute D points of ray using formula :
which is :
When then and radius reaches enough close to the boundary of Mandelbrot set
/*
Maxima CAS code
Number of ray points = depth
r = radial parametr : 1 < R^{1/{2^D}} <= r > ER
*/
GiveRadius( depth):=
block (
[ r, R: 65536],
r:R,
print("r = ER = ", float(R)),
for k:1 thru depth do
(
r:er^(1/(2^k)),
print("k = ", k, " r = ", float(r))
)
)$
compile(all)$
/* --------------------------- */
GiveRadius(10)$
Output :
r = ER = 65536.0 "k = "1" r = "256.0 "k = "2" r = "16.0 "k = "3" r = "4.0 "k = "4" r = "2.0 "k = "5" r = "1.414213562373095 "k = "6" r = "1.189207115002721 "k = "7" r = "1.090507732665258 "k = "8" r = "1.044273782427414 "k = "9" r = "1.021897148654117 "k = "10" r = "1.0108892860517
Depth and sharpness
editHow to make ray more smooth ? Add more points between level sets.
Using:
- fixed integer S =maximal sharpness
- fixed integer D = maximal depth
one can compute S*D points of ray using fomula :
Note that k is equal to integer part of d :
and last point is the same as in depth method
but there are more points here because :
/* Maxima CAS code */
kill(all);
remvalue(all);
GiveRadius( depth, sharpness):=
block (
[ r, R: 65536, d ],
r:R,
print("r = ER = ", float(R)),
for k:1 thru depth do
(
for j:1 thru sharpness do
( d: (k-1) + j/sharpness,
r:R^(1/(2^d)),
print("k = ", k, " ; j = ", j , "; d = ", float(d), "; r = ", float(r))
)
)
)$
compile(all)$
/* --------------------------- */
GiveRadius( 10, 4)$
compile(all)$
Output :
r = ER = 65536.0 k = 1 ; j = 1 ; d = 0.25 ; r = 11224.33726645605 k = 1 ; j = 2 ; d = 0.5 ; r = 2545.456152628088 k = 1 ; j = 3 ; d = 0.75 ; r = 730.9641900482128 k = 1 ; j = 4 ; d = 1.0 ; r = 256.0 k = 2 ; j = 1 ; d = 1.25 ; r = 105.9449728229521 k = 2 ; j = 2 ; d = 1.5 ; r = 50.45251383854013 k = 2 ; j = 3 ; d = 1.75 ; r = 27.0363494216252 k = 2 ; j = 4 ; d = 2.0 ; r = 16.0 k = 3 ; j = 1 ; d = 2.25 ; r = 10.29295743812011 k = 3 ; j = 2 ; d = 2.5 ; r = 7.10299330131601 k = 3 ; j = 3 ; d = 2.75 ; r = 5.199648971000369 k = 3 ; j = 4 ; d = 3.0 ; r = 4.0 k = 4 ; j = 1 ; d = 3.25 ; r = 3.208263928999625 k = 4 ; j = 2 ; d = 3.5 ; r = 2.665144142690224 k = 4 ; j = 3 ; d = 3.75 ; r = 2.280273880699502 k = 4 ; j = 4 ; d = 4.0 ; r = 2.0 k = 5 ; j = 1 ; d = 4.25 ; r = 1.791162731021284 k = 5 ; j = 2 ; d = 4.5 ; r = 1.632526919438152 k = 5 ; j = 3 ; d = 4.75 ; r = 1.51005757529291 k = 5 ; j = 4 ; d = 5.0 ; r = 1.414213562373095 k = 6 ; j = 1 ; d = 5.25 ; r = 1.338343278468302 k = 6 ; j = 2 ; d = 5.5 ; r = 1.277703768264832 k = 6 ; j = 3 ; d = 5.75 ; r = 1.228843999575581 k = 6 ; j = 4 ; d = 6.0 ; r = 1.189207115002721 k = 7 ; j = 1 ; d = 6.25 ; r = 1.156867874248526 k = 7 ; j = 2 ; d = 6.5 ; r = 1.13035559372475 k = 7 ; j = 3 ; d = 6.75 ; r = 1.108532362890494 k = 7 ; j = 4 ; d = 7.0 ; r = 1.090507732665258 k = 8 ; j = 1 ; d = 7.25 ; r = 1.075577925697867 k = 8 ; j = 2 ; d = 7.5 ; r = 1.063181825335982 k = 8 ; j = 3 ; d = 7.75 ; r = 1.052868635153737 k = 8 ; j = 4 ; d = 8.0 ; r = 1.044273782427414 k = 9 ; j = 1 ; d = 8.25 ; r = 1.037100730738276 k = 9 ; j = 2 ; d = 8.5 ; r = 1.031107087230023 k = 9 ; j = 3 ; d = 8.75 ; r = 1.026093872486205 k = 9 ; j = 4 ; d = 9.0 ; r = 1.021897148654117 k = 10 ; j = 1 ; d = 9.25 ; r = 1.018381426940945 k = 10 ; j = 2 ; d = 9.5 ; r = 1.015434432757735 k = 10 ; j = 3 ; d = 9.75 ; r = 1.012962917626408 k = 10 ; j = 4 ; d = 10.0 ; r = 1.0108892860517
m
editOne can use only one loop : m-loop and ccompute j,k and d from m
/* Maxima CAS code */
kill(all);
remvalue(all)$
GiveRadius( depth, sharpness):=
block (
[ r, R: 65536, j, k, d, mMax ],
r:float(R),
mMax:depth*sharpness,
print("r = ER = ", r),
print( "m k j r"),
for m:1 thru mMax do
(
d: m/sharpness,
r:float(R^(1/(2^d))),
k: floor(d),
j: m - k*sharpness ,
print( m, k, j, r)
)
)$
compile(all)$
/* --------------------------- */
GiveRadius( 10, 4)$
output :
r = ER = 65536.0 m k j r 1 0 1 11224.33726645605 2 0 2 2545.456152628088 3 0 3 730.9641900482128 4 1 0 256.0 5 1 1 105.9449728229521 6 1 2 50.45251383854013 7 1 3 27.0363494216252 8 2 0 16.0 9 2 1 10.29295743812011 10 2 2 7.10299330131601 11 2 3 5.199648971000369 12 3 0 4.0 13 3 1 3.208263928999625 14 3 2 2.665144142690224 15 3 3 2.280273880699502 16 4 0 2.0 17 4 1 1.791162731021284 18 4 2 1.632526919438152 19 4 3 1.51005757529291 20 5 0 1.414213562373095 21 5 1 1.338343278468302 22 5 2 1.277703768264832 23 5 3 1.228843999575581 24 6 0 1.189207115002721 25 6 1 1.156867874248526 26 6 2 1.13035559372475 27 6 3 1.108532362890494 28 7 0 1.090507732665258 29 7 1 1.075577925697867 30 7 2 1.063181825335982 31 7 3 1.052868635153737 32 8 0 1.044273782427414 33 8 1 1.037100730738276 34 8 2 1.031107087230023 35 8 3 1.026093872486205 36 9 0 1.021897148654117 37 9 1 1.018381426940945 38 9 2 1.015434432757735 39 9 3 1.012962917626408 40 10 0 1.0108892860517
Polynomial map q
editComplex quadratic polynomial :
iteration :
Map t
edit
compare it with forward iteration on c=0 plane :
Polynomial map P
editP is a polynomial of degree in variable c.
Derivative with respect to c :
Newton map N
edit
note that here :
How to compute new value ?
edit
- start with
- compute value ( without iteration )
- compute and using quadratic iteration from n=1 to n=k
- compute next point using one Newton iteration
Arbitrary names :
Note that the derivative of a constant is zero.
The recursive formulae and initial values:
After k quadratic iterations compute new value using one Newton iteration
It is implemented in :
- mandelbrot-numerics library
- c/lib/m_d_exray_in_step = double precision
- c/lib/m_r_exray_in.c = mpfr ( arbitrary precision)
Newton iteration
editFormula :
Newton iterations gives Newton sequence ( = l-sequence, here m is constant):
- from initial value toward an approximation of
Sequence :
Initial points
edit- The value is presumably a “neighbor” of on ray so use it as the initial value for which is
Code
edit- c code by Claude Heiland-Allen
- book console program and gui version, uses stream
- mandelbrot-numerics library
- mandelbrot perturbator GUI program
- newtonRay - cpp code from program Mandel by Wolf Jung
- sage
- The Mandelbrot capacitor with field lines by Nils Berglund and c code : heat.c
c code
editmpfr
editCode for computing external ray inwards using Newton method based on the mandelbrot-book code by Claude Heiland-Allen
External angle is read from the string ( binary fraction)
/*
code is from :
https://code.mathr.co.uk/mandelbrot-book
mandelbrot-book/code/examples/ray-in.sh
mandelbrot-book/code/examples/ray-in.c
mandelbrot-book/code/bin/mandelbrot_external_ray_in.c
mandelbrot-book/code/lib/mandelbrot_external_ray_in.c
mandelbrot-book/code/lib/mandelbrot_external_ray_in.h
mandelbrot-book/code/lib/mandelbrot_external_ray_in_native.c
mandelbrot-book/code/lib/mandelbrot_external_ray_in_native.h
mandelbrot-book/code/lib/mandelbrot_binary_angle.c
mandelbrot-book/code/lib/mandelbrot_binary_angle.h
mandelbrot-book/code/lib/pi.c
mandelbrot-book/code/lib/pi.h
--------------------------------------------------------
gcc r.c -std=c99 -Wall -Wextra -pedantic -lm -lgmp -lmpfr
./a.out
*/
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <complex.h>
#include <gmp.h>
#include <mpfr.h>
#include <stdbool.h>
const float pif = 3.14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937510f;
const double pi = 3.14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937510;
const long double pil = 3.14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937510l;
// ------------------------------------------------------------
struct mandelbrot_binary_angle {
int preperiod;
int period;
char *pre;
char *per;
};
struct mandelbrot_external_ray_in {
mpq_t angle;
mpq_t one;
unsigned int sharpness; // number of steps to take within each dwell band
unsigned int precision; // delta needs this many bits of effective precision
unsigned int accuracy; // epsilon is scaled relative to magnitude of delta
double escape_radius;
mpfr_t epsilon2;
mpfr_t cx;
mpfr_t cy;
unsigned int j;
unsigned int k;
// temporaries
mpfr_t zx, zy, dzx, dzy, ux, uy, vx, vy, ccx, ccy, cccx, cccy;
};
// ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
int depth = 0;
mpq_t angle;
int base = 2; // The base can vary from 2 to 62, or if base is 0 then the leading characters are used: 0x or 0X for hex, 0b or 0B for binary, 0 for octal, or decimal otherwise.
char *s;
struct mandelbrot_binary_angle *a ;
mpfr_t cre, cim;
struct mandelbrot_external_ray_in *ray; // = mandelbrot_external_ray_in_new(angle);
// ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
void mandelbrot_binary_angle_delete(struct mandelbrot_binary_angle *a) {
free(a->pre);
free(a->per);
free(a);
}
// FIXME check canonical form, ie no .01(01) etc.
struct mandelbrot_binary_angle *mandelbrot_binary_angle_from_string(const char *s) {
const char *dot = strchr(s, '.');
if (! dot) { return 0; }
const char *bra = strchr(dot, '(');
if (! bra) { return 0; }
const char *ket = strchr(bra, ')');
if (! ket) { return 0; }
if (s[0] != '.') { return 0; }
if (ket[1] != 0) { return 0; }
struct mandelbrot_binary_angle *a = malloc(sizeof(struct mandelbrot_binary_angle));
a->preperiod = bra - dot - 1;
a->period = ket - bra - 1;
fprintf( stderr , "external angle \n");
fprintf( stderr , "\thas preperiod = %d \t period = %d\n", a->preperiod, a->period);
if (a->period < 1) {
free(a);
return 0;
}
a->pre = malloc(a->preperiod + 1);
a->per = malloc(a->period + 1);
memcpy(a->pre, dot + 1, a->preperiod);
memcpy(a->per, bra + 1, a->period);
a->pre[a->preperiod] = 0;
a->per[a->period] = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < a->preperiod; ++i) {
if (a->pre[i] != '0' && a->pre[i] != '1') {
mandelbrot_binary_angle_delete(a);
return 0;
}
}
for (int i = 0; i < a->period; ++i) {
if (a->per[i] != '0' && a->per[i] != '1') {
mandelbrot_binary_angle_delete(a);
return 0;
}
}
return a;
}
void mandelbrot_binary_angle_to_rational(mpq_t r, const struct mandelbrot_binary_angle *t) {
mpq_t pre, per;
mpq_init(pre);
mpq_init(per);
mpz_set_str(mpq_numref(pre), t->pre, 2);
mpz_set_si(mpq_denref(pre), 1);
mpz_mul_2exp(mpq_denref(pre), mpq_denref(pre), t->preperiod);
mpq_canonicalize(pre);
mpz_set_str(mpq_numref(per), t->per, 2);
mpz_set_si(mpq_denref(per), 1);
mpz_mul_2exp(mpq_denref(per), mpq_denref(per), t->period);
mpz_sub_ui(mpq_denref(per), mpq_denref(per), 1);
mpz_mul_2exp(mpq_denref(per), mpq_denref(per), t->preperiod);
mpq_canonicalize(per);
mpq_add(r, pre, per);
mpq_clear(pre);
mpq_clear(per);
}
// -------------------------------------------------------------
struct mandelbrot_external_ray_in *mandelbrot_external_ray_in_new(mpq_t angle) {
struct mandelbrot_external_ray_in *r = malloc(sizeof(struct mandelbrot_external_ray_in));
mpq_init(r->angle);
mpq_set(r->angle, angle);
mpq_init(r->one);
mpq_set_ui(r->one, 1, 1);
r->sharpness = 4;
r->precision = 4;
r->accuracy = 4;
r->escape_radius = 65536.0;
mpfr_init2(r->epsilon2, 53);
mpfr_set_ui(r->epsilon2, 1, GMP_RNDN);
double a = 2.0 * pi * mpq_get_d(r->angle);
mpfr_init2(r->cx, 53);
mpfr_init2(r->cy, 53);
mpfr_set_d(r->cx, r->escape_radius * cos(a), GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_set_d(r->cy, r->escape_radius * sin(a), GMP_RNDN);
r->k = 0;
r->j = 0;
// initialize temporaries
mpfr_inits2(53, r->zx, r->zy, r->dzx, r->dzy, r->ux, r->uy, r->vx, r->vy, r->ccx, r->ccy, r->cccx, r->cccy, (mpfr_ptr) 0);
return r;
}
int mandelbrot_external_ray_in_step(struct mandelbrot_external_ray_in *r) {
if (r->j >= r->sharpness) {
mpq_mul_2exp(r->angle, r->angle, 1);
if (mpq_cmp_ui(r->angle, 1, 1) >= 0) {
mpq_sub(r->angle, r->angle, r->one);
}
r->k++;
r->j = 0;
}
// r0 <- er ** ((1/2) ** ((j + 0.5)/sharpness))
// t0 <- r0 cis(2 * pi * angle)
double r0 = pow(r->escape_radius, pow(0.5, (r->j + 0.5) / r->sharpness));
double a0 = 2.0 * pi * mpq_get_d(r->angle);
double t0x = r0 * cos(a0);
double t0y = r0 * sin(a0);
// c <- r->c
mpfr_set(r->ccx, r->cx, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_set(r->ccy, r->cy, GMP_RNDN);
for (unsigned int i = 0; i < 64; ++i) { // FIXME arbitrary limit
// z <- 0
// dz <- 0
mpfr_set_ui(r->zx, 0, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_set_ui(r->zy, 0, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_set_ui(r->dzx, 0, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_set_ui(r->dzy, 0, GMP_RNDN);
// iterate
for (unsigned int p = 0; p <= r->k; ++p) {
// dz <- 2 z dz + 1
mpfr_mul(r->ux, r->zx, r->dzx, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_mul(r->uy, r->zy, r->dzy, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_mul(r->vx, r->zx, r->dzy, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_mul(r->vy, r->zy, r->dzx, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_sub(r->dzx, r->ux, r->uy, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_add(r->dzy, r->vx, r->vy, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_mul_2ui(r->dzx, r->dzx, 1, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_mul_2ui(r->dzy, r->dzy, 1, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_add_ui(r->dzx, r->dzx, 1, GMP_RNDN);
// z <- z^2 + c
mpfr_sqr(r->ux, r->zx, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_sqr(r->uy, r->zy, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_sub(r->vx, r->ux, r->uy, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_mul(r->vy, r->zx, r->zy, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_mul_2ui(r->vy, r->vy, 1, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_add(r->zx, r->vx, r->ccx, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_add(r->zy, r->vy, r->ccy, GMP_RNDN);
}
// c' <- c - (z - t0) / dz
mpfr_sqr(r->ux, r->dzx, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_sqr(r->uy, r->dzy, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_add(r->vy, r->ux, r->uy, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_sub_d(r->zx, r->zx, t0x, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_sub_d(r->zy, r->zy, t0y, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_mul(r->ux, r->zx, r->dzx, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_mul(r->uy, r->zy, r->dzy, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_add(r->vx, r->ux, r->uy, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_div(r->ux, r->vx, r->vy, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_sub(r->cccx, r->ccx, r->ux, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_mul(r->ux, r->zy, r->dzx, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_mul(r->uy, r->zx, r->dzy, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_sub(r->vx, r->ux, r->uy, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_div(r->uy, r->vx, r->vy, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_sub(r->cccy, r->ccy, r->uy, GMP_RNDN);
// delta^2 = |c' - c|^2
mpfr_sub(r->ux, r->cccx, r->ccx, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_sub(r->uy, r->cccy, r->ccy, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_sqr(r->vx, r->ux, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_sqr(r->vy, r->uy, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_add(r->ux, r->vx, r->vy, GMP_RNDN);
// enough_bits = 0 < 2 * prec(eps^2) + exponent eps^2 - 2 * precision
int enough_bits = 0 < 2 * (mpfr_get_prec(r->epsilon2) - r->precision) + mpfr_get_exp(r->epsilon2);
if (enough_bits) {
// converged = delta^2 < eps^2
int converged = mpfr_less_p(r->ux, r->epsilon2);
if (converged) {
// eps^2 <- |c' - r->c|^2 >> (2 * accuracy)
mpfr_sub(r->ux, r->cccx, r->cx, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_sub(r->uy, r->cccy, r->cy, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_sqr(r->vx, r->ux, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_sqr(r->vy, r->uy, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_add(r->ux, r->vx, r->vy, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_div_2ui(r->epsilon2, r->ux, 2 * r->accuracy, GMP_RNDN);
// j <- j + 1
r->j = r->j + 1;
// r->c <- c'
mpfr_set(r->cx, r->cccx, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_set(r->cy, r->cccy, GMP_RNDN);
return 1;
}
} else {
// bump precision
mpfr_prec_t prec = mpfr_get_prec(r->cx) + 32;
mpfr_prec_round(r->cx, prec, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_prec_round(r->cy, prec, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_prec_round(r->epsilon2, prec, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_set_prec(r->ccx, prec);
mpfr_set_prec(r->ccy, prec);
mpfr_set_prec(r->cccx, prec);
mpfr_set_prec(r->cccy, prec);
mpfr_set_prec(r->zx, prec);
mpfr_set_prec(r->zy, prec);
mpfr_set_prec(r->dzx, prec);
mpfr_set_prec(r->dzy, prec);
mpfr_set_prec(r->ux, prec);
mpfr_set_prec(r->uy, prec);
mpfr_set_prec(r->vx, prec);
mpfr_set_prec(r->vy, prec);
i = 0;
// c <- r->c
mpfr_set(r->cccx, r->cx, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_set(r->cccy, r->cy, GMP_RNDN);
}
mpfr_set(r->ccx, r->cccx, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_set(r->ccy, r->cccy, GMP_RNDN);
}
return 0;
}
void mandelbrot_external_ray_in_get(struct mandelbrot_external_ray_in *r, mpfr_t x, mpfr_t y) {
mpfr_set_prec(x, mpfr_get_prec(r->cx));
mpfr_set(x, r->cx, GMP_RNDN);
mpfr_set_prec(y, mpfr_get_prec(r->cy));
mpfr_set(y, r->cy, GMP_RNDN);
}
void mandelbrot_external_ray_in_delete(struct mandelbrot_external_ray_in *r) {
mpfr_clear(r->epsilon2);
mpfr_clear(r->cx);
mpfr_clear(r->cy);
mpq_clear(r->angle);
mpq_clear(r->one);
mpfr_clears(r->zx, r->zy, r->dzx, r->dzy, r->ux, r->uy, r->vx, r->vy, r->ccx, r->ccy, r->cccx, r->cccy, (mpfr_ptr) 0);
free(r);
}
// -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
void PrintCInfo (void)
{
fprintf(stderr,"gcc version: %d.%d.%d\n", __GNUC__, __GNUC_MINOR__, __GNUC_PATCHLEVEL__); // https://stackoverflow.com/questions/20389193/how-do-i-check-my-gcc-c-compiler-version-for-my-eclipse
// OpenMP version is displayed in the console : export OMP_DISPLAY_ENV="TRUE"
fprintf(stderr,"__STDC__ = %d\n", __STDC__);
fprintf(stderr,"__STDC_VERSION__ = %ld\n", __STDC_VERSION__);
fprintf(stderr,"c dialect = ");
switch (__STDC_VERSION__)
{ // the format YYYYMM
case 199409L:
fprintf(stderr,"C94\n");
break;
case 199901L:
fprintf(stderr,"C99\n");
break;
case 201112L:
fprintf(stderr,"C11\n");
break;
case 201710L:
fprintf(stderr,"C18\n");
break;
//default : /* Optional */
}
//gmp_printf (" GMP-%s \n ", gmp_version );
mpfr_printf("Versions: MPFR-%s \n GMP-%s \n", mpfr_version, gmp_version );
}
void PrintInfo(void){
//
fprintf(stderr, "console C program ( CLI ) for computing external ray of Mandelbrot set (parametric ray)\n");
fprintf(stderr, "using Newton method described by Tomoki Kawahira \n");
fprintf(stderr, "tracing inward ( from infinity toward Mandelbrot set) = ray-in\n");
fprintf(stderr, "arbitrary precision (gmp, mpfr) with dynamic precision adjustment.\n Based on the code by Claude Heiland-Allen: https://mathr.co.uk/web/\n");
fprintf(stderr, "usage: ./a.out angle depth\n outputs space-separated complex numbers on stdout\n example command \n./a.out 1/3 25\n or\n ./a.out .(01) 25\n");
fprintf( stderr , "\n");
fprintf( stderr , "\tsharpness = %d\n", ray->sharpness);
fprintf( stderr , "\tprecision = %d\n", ray->precision);
fprintf( stderr , "\taccuracy = %d\n", ray->accuracy);
fprintf( stderr , "\tescape_radius = %.0f\n", ray->escape_radius);
//
PrintCInfo();
}
int setup(void){
// 2 parameters of external ray : depth, angle
depth = 35;
// external angle
s = ".(01)"; // landing point c = -0.750000000000000 +0.000000000000000 i period = 10000
// mpq
mpq_init(angle);
// mpq init from string or 2 integers
a = mandelbrot_binary_angle_from_string(s); // set a from string
// gmp_fprintf (stderr, "\tas a binary fraction = %0b\n", a); // 0b or 0B for binary // not works
if (a) {
mandelbrot_binary_angle_to_rational(angle, a); // convert binary string to decimal rational number
mandelbrot_binary_angle_delete(a); } // use only rational form so delete string form
mpq_canonicalize (angle); // It is the responsibility of the user to canonicalize the assigned variable before any arithmetic operations are performed on that variable.
gmp_fprintf (stderr, "\tas a decimal rational number = %Qd\n", angle); //
fprintf( stderr , "\tas a formated binary string = 0%s\n", s);
// ---------------------------------------------------
mpfr_init2(cre, 53);
mpfr_init2(cim, 53);
return 0;
}
int compute_ray(mpq_t angle){
ray = mandelbrot_external_ray_in_new(angle);
if (ray ==NULL ){ fprintf(stderr, " ray error \n"); return 1;}
for (int i = 0; i < depth * 4; ++i) { // FIXME 4 = implementation's sharpness
//fprintf( stderr , "i = %d\n", i);
mandelbrot_external_ray_in_step(ray); //fprintf(stderr, " ray step ok \n");
mandelbrot_external_ray_in_get(ray, cre, cim); //fprintf(stderr, " ray get ok \n");
mpfr_out_str(stdout, 10, 0, cre, GMP_RNDN);
putchar(' ');
mpfr_out_str(stdout, 10, 0, cim, GMP_RNDN);
putchar('\n');
}
return 0;
}
int end(void){
PrintInfo();
fprintf(stderr, " allways free memory (deallocate ) to avoid memory leaks \n"); // wikipedia C_dynamic_memory_allocation
mpq_clear (angle);
mpfr_clear(cre);
mpfr_clear(cim);
mandelbrot_external_ray_in_delete(ray);
return 0;
}
int main(void){
setup();
compute_ray(angle);
end();
return 0;
}
Python
editRay in procedure
r"""
Mandelbrot and Julia sets (Cython helper)
This is the helper file providing functionality for mandel_julia.py.
https://git.sagemath.org/sage.git/tree/src/sage/dynamics/complex_dynamics/mandel_julia_helper.pyx?id=bf9df0d7ff4f272b19293fd0d04ef3a649d05863
AUTHORS:
- Ben Barros
"""
#*****************************************************************************
# Copyright (C) 2017 BEN BARROS <bbarros@slu.edu>
#
# This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
# it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
# the Free Software Foundation, either version 2 of the License, or
# (at your option) any later version.
# http://www.gnu.org/licenses/
#*****************************************************************************
from __future__ import absolute_import, division
from sage.plot.colors import Color
from sage.repl.image import Image
from copy import copy
from cysignals.signals cimport sig_check
from sage.rings.complex_field import ComplexField
from sage.functions.log import exp, log
from sage.symbolic.constants import pi
def external_ray(theta, **kwds):
r"""
Draws the external ray(s) of a given angle (or list of angles)
by connecting a finite number of points that were approximated using
Newton's method. The algorithm used is described in a paper by
Tomoki Kawahira.
https://git.sagemath.org/sage.git/tree/src/sage/dynamics/complex_dynamics/mandel_julia.py?id=bf9df0d7ff4f272b19293fd0d04ef3a649d05863
REFERENCE:
[Kaw2009]_
INPUT:
- ``theta`` -- double or list of doubles, angles between 0 and 1 inclusive.
kwds:
- ``image`` -- 24-bit RGB image (optional - default: None) user specified image of Mandelbrot set.
- ``D`` -- long (optional - default: ``25``) depth of the approximation. As ``D`` increases, the external ray gets closer to the boundary of the Mandelbrot set. If the ray doesn't reach the boundary of the Mandelbrot set, increase ``D``.
- ``S`` -- long (optional - default: ``10``) sharpness of the approximation. Adjusts the number of points used to approximate the external ray (number of points is equal to ``S*D``). If ray looks jagged, increase ``S``.
- ``R`` -- long (optional - default: ``100``) radial parameter. If ``R`` is large, the external ray reaches sufficiently close to infinity. If ``R`` is too small, Newton's method may not converge to the correct ray.
- ``prec`` -- long (optional - default: ``300``) specifies the bits of precision used by the Complex Field when using Newton's method to compute points on the external ray.
- ``ray_color`` -- RGB color (optional - default: ``[255, 255, 255]``) color of the external ray(s).
OUTPUT:
24-bit RGB image of external ray(s) on the Mandelbrot set.
EXAMPLES::
sage: external_ray(1/3)
500x500px 24-bit RGB image
::
sage: external_ray(0.6, ray_color=[255, 0, 0])
500x500px 24-bit RGB image
::
sage: external_ray([0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.7]) # long time
500x500px 24-bit RGB image
::
sage: external_ray([i/5 for i in range(1,5)]) # long time
500x500px 24-bit RGB image
WARNING:
If you are passing in an image, make sure you specify
which parameters to use when drawing the external ray.
For example, the following is incorrect::
sage: M = mandelbrot_plot(x_center=0) # not tested
sage: external_ray(5/7, image=M) # not tested
500x500px 24-bit RGB image
To get the correct external ray, we adjust our parameters::
sage: M = mandelbrot_plot(x_center=0) # not tested
sage: external_ray(5/7, x_center=0, image=M) # not tested
500x500px 24-bit RGB image
TODO:
The ``copy()`` function for bitmap images needs to be implemented in Sage.
"""
x_0 = kwds.get("x_center", -1)
y_0 = kwds.get("y_center", 0)
plot_width = kwds.get("image_width", 4)
pixel_width = kwds.get("pixel_count", 500)
depth = kwds.get("D", 25)
sharpness = kwds.get("S", 10)
radial_parameter = kwds.get("R", 100)
precision = kwds.get("prec", 300)
precision = max(precision, -log(pixel_width * 0.001, 2).round() + 10)
ray_color = kwds.get("ray_color", [255]*3)
image = kwds.get("image", None)
if image is None:
image = mandelbrot_plot(**kwds)
# Make a copy of the bitmap image.
# M = copy(image)
old_pixel = image.pixels()
M = Image('RGB', (pixel_width, pixel_width))
pixel = M.pixels()
for i in range(pixel_width):
for j in range(pixel_width):
pixel[i,j] = old_pixel[i,j]
# Make sure that theta is a list so loop below works
if type(theta) != list:
theta = [theta]
# Check if theta is in the invterval [0,1]
for angle in theta:
if angle < 0 or angle > 1:
raise \
ValueError("values for theta must be in the closed interval [0,1].")
# Loop through each value for theta in list and plot the external ray.
for angle in theta:
E = fast_external_ray(angle, D=depth, S=sharpness, R=radial_parameter,
prec=precision, image_width=plot_width, pixel_count=pixel_width)
# Convert points to pixel coordinates.
pixel_list = convert_to_pixels(E, x_0, y_0, plot_width, pixel_width)
# Find the pixels between points in pixel_list.
extra_points = []
for i in range(len(pixel_list) - 1):
if min(pixel_list[i+1]) >= 0 and max(pixel_list[i+1]) < pixel_width:
for j in get_line(pixel_list[i], pixel_list[i+1]):
extra_points.append(j)
# Add these points to pixel_list to fill in gaps in the ray.
pixel_list += extra_points
# Remove duplicates from list.
pixel_list = list(set(pixel_list))
# Check if point is in window and if it is, plot it on the image to
# create an external ray.
for k in pixel_list:
if max(k) < pixel_width and min(k) >= 0:
pixel[int(k[0]), int(k[1])] = tuple(ray_color)
return M
cpdef fast_external_ray(double theta, long D=30, long S=10, long R=100,
long pixel_count=500, double image_width=4, long prec=300):
r"""
Returns a list of points that approximate the external ray for a given angle.
INPUT:
- ``theta`` -- double, angle between 0 and 1 inclusive.
- ``D`` -- long (optional - default: ``25``) depth of the approximation. As ``D`` increases, the external ray gets closer to the boundary of the Mandelbrot set.
- ``S`` -- long (optional - default: ``10``) sharpness of the approximation. Adjusts the number of points used to approximate the external ray (number of points is equal to ``S*D``).
- ``R`` -- long (optional - default: ``100``) radial parameter. If ``R`` is sufficiently large, the external ray reaches enough close to infinity.
- ``pixel_count`` -- long (optional - default: ``500``) side length of image in number of pixels.
- ``image_width`` -- double (optional - default: ``4``) width of the image in the complex plane.
- ``prec`` -- long (optional - default: ``300``) specifies the bits of precision used by the Complex Field when using Newton's method to compute points on the external ray.
OUTPUT:
List of tuples of Real Interval Field Elements
EXAMPLES::
sage: from sage.dynamics.complex_dynamics.mandel_julia_helper import fast_external_ray
sage: fast_external_ray(0,S=1,D=1)
[(100.000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000,
0.000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000),
(9.51254777713729174697578576623132297117784691109499464854806785133621315075854778426714908,
0.000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000)]
::
sage: from sage.dynamics.complex_dynamics.mandel_julia_helper import fast_external_ray
sage: fast_external_ray(1/3,S=1,D=1)
[(-49.9999999999999786837179271969944238662719726562500000000000000000000000000000000000000000,
86.6025403784438765342201804742217063903808593750000000000000000000000000000000000000000000),
(-5.50628047023173006234970878097113901879832542655926629309001652388544528575532346900138516,
8.64947510053972513843999918917106032664030380426885745306040284140385975750462108180377187)]
::
sage: from sage.dynamics.complex_dynamics.mandel_julia_helper import fast_external_ray
sage: fast_external_ray(0.75234,S=1,D=1)
[(1.47021239172637052661229972727596759796142578125000000000000000000000000000000000000000000,
-99.9891917935294287644865107722580432891845703125000000000000000000000000000000000000000000),
(-0.352790406744857508500937144524776555433184352559852962308757189778284058275081335121601384,
-9.98646630765023514178761177926164047797465369576787921409326037870837930920646860774032363)]
"""
cdef:
CF = ComplexField(prec)
PI = CF.pi()
I = CF.gen()
c_0, r_m, t_m, temp_c, C_k, D_k, old_c, x, y, dist
int k, j, t
double difference, m
double error = pixel_count * 0.0001
double pixel_width = image_width / pixel_count
# initialize list with c_0
c_list = [CF(R*exp(2*PI*I*theta))]
# Loop through each subinterval and approximate point on external ray.
for k in range(1,D+1):
for j in range(1,S+1):
m = (k-1)*S + j
r_m = CF(R**(2**(-m/S)))
t_m = CF(r_m**(2**k) * exp(2*PI*I*theta * 2**k))
temp_c = c_list[-1]
difference = error
# Repeat Newton's method until points are close together.
while error <= difference:
sig_check()
old_c = temp_c
# Recursive formula for iterates of q(z) = z^2 + c
C_k, D_k = CF(old_c), CF(1)
for t in range(k):
C_k, D_k = C_k**2 + old_c, CF(2)*D_k*C_k + CF(1)
temp_c = old_c - (C_k - t_m) / D_k # Newton map
difference = abs(old_c) - abs(temp_c)
dist = (2*C_k.abs()*(C_k.abs()).log()) / D_k.abs()
if dist < pixel_width:
break
c_list.append(CF(temp_c))
if dist < pixel_width:
break
# Convert Complex Field elements into tuples.
for k in range(len(c_list)):
x,y = c_list[k].real(), c_list[k].imag()
c_list[k] = (x, y)
return c_list
Test and precision
edit| angle in turns | landing point | precision |
|---|---|---|
| 0 | 1/4 | |
| 1/2 | -2 | |
| 1/3 | -3/4 | |
| 1/4 | -0.228155493653962 +1.115142508039937i | |
| 1/5 | -0.154724526314600 +1.031047184160779i | |
| 1/6 | i | |
| 1/10 | 0.384063957 +0.666805123i |
See
- here
- Y-C Chen, T Kawahira, H-L Li, and J-M Yuan FAMILY OF INVARIANT CANTOR SETS AS ORBITS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS. II: JULIA SETS (8475K, PDF) Dec 6, 09
The Wolf Jung test :
The external parameter rays for angles (in turns)
- 1/7 (period 3)
- 321685687669320/2251799813685247 (period 51)
- 321685687669322/2251799813685247 ( period 51 )
Angles differ by about , but the landing points of the corresponding parameter rays are about 0.035 apart.[16]
References
edit- ↑ wikipedia : External ray
- ↑ gitlab repo by adam majewski: parameter external angle
- ↑ Generalizations of Douady's magic formula by Adam Epstein, Giulio Tiozzo
- ↑ fractalforums.org : generalizations-of-douadys-magic-formula
- ↑ Subdivision rule constructions on critically preperiodic quadratic matings by Mary Wilkerson
- ↑ wikipedia : Line segment
- ↑ fractalforums.org: help-with-ideas-for-fractal-art
- ↑ by Claude Heiland-Allen
- ↑ fractalforums : pathfinding-in-the-mandelbrot-set
- ↑ Family of Invariant Cantor Sets as orbits of Differential Equations II: Julia Sets by Yi-Chiuan Chen, Tomoki Kawahira, Juan-Ming Yuan
- ↑ An algorithm to draw external rays of the Mandelbrot set by Tomoki Kawahira
- ↑ fieldlines by I Quilez
- ↑ fractalforums.org: help-with-ideas-for-fractal-art
- ↑ An algorithm to draw external rays of the Mandelbrot set by Tomoki Kawahira
- ↑ Drawing external ray using Newton method ( described by T Kawahira)
- ↑ Wolf Jung's test for precision of drawing parameter rays