Esperanto/Appendix/Summary of grammar
Structure
editEsperanto words are formed by taking one or more roots, modifiying them with one or more affixes, then adding grammatical endings.
Description | Word | Meaning |
---|---|---|
Root meaning "laugh" | rid | No meaning |
Adding infinitive verb ending -i | ridi | To laugh |
Adding adjective ending -a | rida | Laughing (for example, "a laughing hyena" is rida hieno) |
Adding adjective ending -a and -ind affix meaning "worthy of" | ridinda | Laughable (worthy of laughs) |
Adding noun ending -o | rido | (A) laugh |
Adding noun ending -o and -ad affix meaning "repeated action" | ridado | Laughter (repeated laughs) |
Root meaning "mock/tease" | mok | No meaning |
Combining root for "mock" with root for "laugh", then adding infinitive verb ending -i | mokridi (pri) | To (mockingly) laugh (at) |
See the table of word endings and table of affixes for more word synthesis options.
Nouns
editAll words ending in -o, -oj, -on or -ojn are nouns.
By themselves, nouns are indefinite (hundo means "a dog"). The definite particle is la (la hundo means "the dog").
Plural
editSingular nouns end in -o (or -on). The plural is formed by adding -j (forming -oj or -ojn).
Esperanto | English |
---|---|
hundo | (a) dog |
hundoj | (some) dogs |
la hundo | the dog |
la hundoj | the dogs |
Accusative case
editWhen a noun is the object of a verb phrase, -n is added. This allows variable word order. In the following example, all of the Esperanto sentences mean the same thing.
Esperanto | English |
---|---|
Hundo pelas katon. | A dog is chasing a cat. |
Katon pelas hundo. | |
Hundo katon pelas. | |
Katon hundo pelas. | |
Pelas hundo katon. | |
Pelas katon hundo. |
With the plural, the same rules apply.
Esperanto | English |
---|---|
Hundoj pelas katojn. | Dogs chase cats. |
Katojn pelas hundoj. | |
Hundoj katojn pelas. | |
Katojn hundoj pelas. | |
Pelas hundoj katojn. | |
Pelas katojn hundoj. |
Verb nouns
editVerb nouns do not exist in English, with the exception of the active present (usually by adding -er: "to view" → "the viewer"), the passive present (usually by adding -ee: "to view" → "the viewee") and the passive past (usually by adding -ed: "to view" → "the viewed"). Esperanto has these forms and more.
However, Esperanto is much more specific than English. Skribanto means "writer", but it specifically means "person who is writing now", not "person who writes professionally" (which would be skribisto).
Active verb nouns
editMeaning | Esperanto | English | |
---|---|---|---|
-into | One who was ...ing | Skribinto | One who was writing |
-anto | One who is ...ing | Skribanto | One who is writing |
-onto | One who will be ...ing | Skribonto | One who will be writing |
Passive verb nouns
editMeaning | Esperanto | English | |
---|---|---|---|
-ito | One who was ...ed | Amito | One who was loved |
-ato | One who is ...ed | Amato | One who is loved |
-oto | One who will be ...ed | Amoto | One who will be loved |
Adjectives
editAll words ending in -a, -aj, -an or -ajn are adjectives.
The ending modifiers are the same as for nouns. The modifiers used are determined by the noun being modified.
Esperanto | English | Case |
---|---|---|
granda hundo | (a) big dog | Subjective |
grandaj hundoj | (some) big dogs | Subjective |
grandan hundon | (a) big dog | Accusative |
grandajn hundojn | (some) big dogs | Accusative |
The adjective does not need to appear before, or even next to, the noun it is modifying.
Esperanto | English |
---|---|
La hundo havas ruĝan pilkon. | The dog has a red ball. |
La hundo havas pilkon ruĝan. | |
La hundo pilkon havas ruĝan. |
Verb adjectives
editVerb adjectives are called participles. English has two participle forms: present (usually by adding -ing: "to boil" → "boiling water"); and past (usually by adding -ed: "to boil" → "boiled water"). Esperanto has these forms and more.
However, Esperanto is much more specific than English. English does not encode whether the adjective is active or passive --- "boiling water" says that the water is being boiled (passive), but "writing person" says that the person is doing the writing (active). If you wanted to express a passive form of writing, you would instead say the "letter being written". Attempting to express an active form of boiling would produce "boiling person", which would most likely be understood as an idiom (such as "extremely angry person") since it does not culturally make sense otherwise.
Active verb adjectives
editMeaning | Esperanto | English | |
---|---|---|---|
-inta | was ...ing | Paginta viro | A man who was paying |
-anta | ...ing | Paganta viro | Paying man |
-onta | will be ...ing | Pagonta viro | A man who will be paying |
Passive verb adjectives
editMeaning | Esperanto | English | |
---|---|---|---|
-ita | ...ed | Pagita viro | Paid man |
-ata | being ...ed | Pagata viro | A man being paid |
-ota | will be ...ed | Pagota viro | A man who will be paid |
Agreement
editAs adjectives, they must match (or agree with) the noun they are modifying.
Esperanto | English |
---|---|
La libro estas skribata. | The book is being written. |
La libroj estas skribataj. | The books are being written. |
Dangling
editIn any English discussion of participles, the question of dangling participles may arise.
The first thing to realize is that English has a dangling modifier problem, participles just make it a little more obvious. Esperanto does not have this problem usually because of the -n marker.
So in English we might say "I saw a book looking through the window". Grammatically, the book is looking so the participle is dangling (or attached to the wrong noun).
In Esperanto one would say "Mi vidis libron vidanta tra la fenestro." Without the -n, "mi" is the noun that "vidanta" is modifying. If we wanted to say that the book was looking we would say "Mi vidis libron vidantan tra la fenestro."
Why does this matter?
edit"Mi vidis hundon vidanta tra la fenestro." I looked through the window and saw a dog.
"Mi vidis hundon vidantan tra la fenestro." I saw a dog, and that dog was looking through the window.
Comparatives and Superlatives
editComparatives are formed using pli (more) or malpli (less):
- pli bela - more beautiful
- malpli bela - less beautiful
- pli bona - better
- pli malbona - worse
- pli saĝa - wiser
Superlatives are formed using plej (most) or malplej (least):
- plej bela - most beautiful
- malplej bela - least beautiful
- plej bona - best
- plej malbona - worst
- plej saĝa - wisest
Pronouns
editPronouns do not have a grammatical ending. They all end in -i, which is the infinitive verb ending. However, this does not cause confusion, because there are only ten pronouns, so they are easy to identify.
As with nouns, pronouns have an accusative case formed by adding -n.
Subjective | Accusative | ||
---|---|---|---|
Esperanto | English | Esperanto | English |
Mi | I | Min | Me |
Vi | You (singular and plural) | Vin | You (singular and plural) |
Li | He | Lin | Him |
Ŝi | She | Ŝin | Her |
Ĝi | It | Ĝin | It |
Ni | We | Nin | Us |
Ili | They | Ilin | Them |
Oni | One | Onin | One |
Ci | Thou | Cin | Thee |
Oni means "one" in the sense of "how does one do that?" ("Kiel oni faras tion?"). It does not mean the number one (1).
Possessive
editPossessive pronouns are simply adjectives formed from the pronouns by adding -a.
Esperanto | English |
---|---|
Mia | My/mine |
Via | Your/yours |
Lia | His |
Ŝia | Her/hers |
Ĝia | Its |
Nia | Our/ours |
Ilia | Their/theirs |
Onia | One's |
Cia | Thy/thine |
They follow the same rules as other adjectives, and must agree with the plurality and subjective/accusative case of the noun they modify.
Esperanto | English |
---|---|
Mia hundo pelas vian katon. | My dog is chasing your cat. |
La bluaj pilkoj estas liaj (pilkoj). | The blue balls are his (balls). |
Note that certain copula verbs such as esti (to be) and ŝajni (to seem) do not take the accusative; the noun forms and modifying adjectives that follow such verbs are grammatically subjective-completion elements, not objects.
Reflexive
editThe reflexive pronoun is si (with accusative case sin). It has a possessive form like any other pronoun (by adding -a, which then has to agree in gender and case with the noun it is modifying).
Esperanto | English | Notes |
---|---|---|
Li amas sin. | He loves himself. | If you said "Li amas lin.", you would be saying "He loves him (some other guy)". |
Ŝi lavas siajn manojn. | She washes her hands (her own hands). | If you said "Ŝi lavas ŝiajn manojn.", you would be saying "She washes her hands (some other woman's hands)". |
Numbers
editThe cardinal numbers do not have a grammatical ending. Other than unu, du, tri and naŭ (1, 2, 3 and 9), their endings cannot be confused with other grammatical endings. For the four that do, this does not cause confusion, because there are only four of them, so they are easy to identify.
Esperanto | English |
---|---|
Nul | Zero |
Unu | One |
Du | Two |
Tri | Three |
Kvar | Four |
Kvin | Five |
Ses | Six |
Sep | Seven |
Ok | Eight |
Naŭ | Nine |
Dek | Ten |
Cent | (One) hundred |
Mil | (One) thousand |
The remaining numbers are formed by combination of these bases. Concatenating numbers together, as in naǔcent ("nine hundred"), implies multiplication, otherwise addition is implied. For example 1984 is mil naŭcent okdek kvar.
Note that the cardinal numbers only refer to the idea of the numbers, not specific instances; for that you use the noun form (with -o, and normal noun rules). If you wanted to say someone wrote one instance of the number one, and two instances of the number five, you would say: Iu skribis unu unuon, kaj du kvinojn.
Ordinals
editOrdinal numbers are adjectives, formed with -a. They follow the same rules as other adjectives, and must agree with the plurality and subjective/accusative case of the noun they modify.
Esperanto | English | Notes |
---|---|---|
Unua | First | |
Dua | Second | |
Dudek-unua | Twenty-first | With compound numbers, a hyphen must be used. |
As in English, they can be abbreviated. This is done by replacing the word for the cardinal number with the number: unua → 1a. Because they are still adjectives, agreement is necessary: unuan → 1an, unuaj → 1aj.
Adverbs
editAdverbs are formed from roots with the ending -e.
Esperanto | English |
---|---|
Bone | Well |
Rapide | Quickly |
Not all adverbs end with -e because not all adverbs are formed from root words. There is a small subset of words that can function as adverbs, but are not "pure" adverbs, and often can function as other parts of speech. Some can function as both adverbs and nouns (hodiaŭ → "today"), others as adverbs and conjunctions (kvazaŭ → "as if, as though"), others as adverbs and adjectives (ambaŭ → "both"), others as adverbs and prepositions (ĉirkaŭ → "around"), others as adverbs and pronouns (pli → "more"). They generally have the ending -aŭ (the "indeterminate part-of-speech" grammatical ending), but not always.
Esperanto | English |
---|---|
eĉ | even |
hodiaŭ | today |
iom | a little, rather, some, somewhat, to some extent |
ĵus | just, just now |
nun | now |
nur | only |
pli | more |
plu | further, more |
tro | overly, too much |
tuj | immediately |
It is always legal to add -e to the end of these pseudo-adverbs to make them true adverbs (pli → plie), but this is rarely done for most of them.
Note
It is also legal to add other grammatical endings (nun → nuno, nuna).
Verbs
editThere are no irregular verbs. All conjugations are formed by adding the right ending to the root.
Infinitive
editThe infinitive ending is -i.
Esperanto | English |
---|---|
Esti aŭ ne esti. | To be or not to be. |
Mi volas skribi librojn. | I want to write books. |
Imperative
editThe imperative ending is -u. It is used for giving direct commands (Go!) or for expressing our will (Let's...).
Esperanto | English |
---|---|
Estu! | Do it! |
Ne skribu librojn. | Don't write books. |
Li skribu multajn librojn! | Let him write many books/May he write many books! |
Ni iru al la kinejo. | Let's go to the cinema. |
Mi iru tiam ĉi. | I should go now. |
Tenses
editThe present tense ending is -as. The past tense ending is -is. The future tense ending is -os. There is no agreement with number or gender of either subject or object.
Esperanto | English |
---|---|
Mi skribas librojn. | I write books. |
Mi skribis librojn. | I wrote books. |
Mi skribos librojn. | I will write books. |
Conditional
editThe conditional ending is -us; as in English it is also used as a polite way to express a wish or request.
Esperanto | English |
---|---|
Se mi povus, mi skribus librojn. | If I could, I would write books. |
Se mi estus vi, mi skribus librojn. | If I were you, I would write books. |
Ĉu mi povus havi tason da teo? | Could I have a cup of tea? |
Participles
editParticiples are adjectives formed from verbs. There are two types: the active and the passive.
Active participles
editestas | estis | estos | |
---|---|---|---|
-inta (action recently completed) |
estas skribinta (has written) |
estis skribinta (had written) |
estos skribinta (will have written) |
-anta (action still ongoing) |
estas skribanta (is writing) |
estis skribanta (was writing) |
estos skribanta (will be writing) |
-onta (action soon to begin) |
estas skribonta (is going to write) |
estis skribonta (was about to write) |
estos skribonta (will be about to write) |
As adjectives, they must agree in case and number with the noun they are modifying, which is the subject of the active participle phrase.
Esperanto | English |
---|---|
Mi estas skribinta librojn. | I have written books. |
Ni estis skribontaj libron. | We were about to write a book. |
Vi estos skribanta libron. | You (singular) will be writing a book. |
Vi estos skribantaj libron. | You (plural) will be writing a book. |
Passive participles
editPassive participles can be formed from transitive verbs and are used for the passive voice.
esti | estu | estus | |
---|---|---|---|
-ita (action recently completed) having been |
esti skribita (to be (in the state of) having been written) (to have been written) |
estu skribita (be (in the state of) having been written) (be written) |
estus skribita (would be (in the state of) having been written) (would have been written) |
-ata (action still on-going) being |
esti skribata (to be (being) written) |
estu skribata (be (being) written) |
estus skribata (would be (being) written) |
-ota (action soon to begin) about/going to be |
esti skribota (to be about (going) to be written) |
estu skribota (be about (going) to be written) |
estus skribota (would be about (going) to be written) |
estas | estis | estos | |
-ita (action recently completed) having been |
estas skribita (is (in the state of) having been written) (has been written) |
estis skribita (was (in the state of) having been written) (had been written) |
estos skribita (will be (in the state of) having been written) (will have been written) |
-ata (action still on-going) being |
estas skribata (is (being) written) |
estis skribata (was (being) written) |
estos skribata (will be (being) written) |
-ota (action soon to begin) about/going to be |
estas skribota (is about (going) to be written) |
estis skribota (was about (going) to be written) |
estos skribota (will be about (going) to be written) |
As adjectives, they must agree in case and number with the noun they are modifying, which is the subject of the passive participle phrase.
Esperanto | English |
---|---|
La libro estas skribata. | The book is being written. |
La libroj estas skribataj. | The books are being written. |
The direct object of sentences in passive voice is denoted by de after the participle:
Esperanto | English |
---|---|
La libro estas skribata de mi. | The book is being written by me. |
Conjunctions
editConjunctions do not have a grammatical ending. Other than ĉu ("whether/or"), se ("if") and ke ("that"), their endings cannot be confused with other grammatical endings. For those that can, this does not cause confusion, because there are only a small number of them, so they are easy to identify.
Esperanto | English | Examples |
---|---|---|
ankoraŭ | still, yet | |
aŭ | or | |
ĉu | whether | |
kaj | and | |
ke | that | |
krom | besides, in addition to | |
se | if | |
sed | but | |
aŭ ... aŭ ... | either... or ... | |
kaj ... kaj ... | both... and ... |
|
nek ... nek ... | neither ... nor ... |
|
Comparatives
editComparatives are formed by adjectives and adverbs.
Esperanto | English | Examples |
---|---|---|
pli ... ol ... | more ... than ... |
|
malpli ... ol ... | less ... than ... |
|
tiel ... kiel ... | as ... as ... |
|
tia ... kia ... | such ... as ... |
|
sama ... kia ... | the same (kind of thing) ... as ... |
|
sama ... kiel ... | the same (way or method) ... as ... |
|
The Time of Day
editOrdinal numbers (unua, dua) are used for the hour of the day, with horo expressed or understood. The minutes are expressed by cardinal numbers (unu, du). In questions, as well as using kiam, the adjective kioma (from kiom, how much) can be used:
Esperanto | English |
---|---|
Kiam vi alvenos? | When will you arrive? |
Kioma horo estas? | What hour (what o'clock, what time) is it? |
Je kioma horo vi venos? | At what time (what o'clock) will you come? |
Estas la dua horo. | It is two o'clock (it is the second hour). |
Estas la tria kaj kvin minutoj. | It is five minutes past three. |
Ni iris je la sesa kaj duono. | We went at half past six. |
Estas la oka kaj kvardek kvin. | It is eight forty-five. |
Estas unu kvarono antaŭ la naŭa. | It is a quarter to nine. |
Estas dudek minutoj antaŭ la deka. | It is twenty minutes to ten. |