User:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 9/Power

This is the sandbox page for the issue: Power.

Iranian Theocratic Power

1979 Iranian Revolution

The Iranian theocracy was established by Ruhollah Khomeini following the 1979 Iranian Revolution which saw the overthrow of the last Shah of Iran. The ultimate rejection of secularism in Iran was due to widespread dissatisfaction with the Shah’s political regime; Khomeini utilised his esteemed position as Marja within the Shi’ite Islamic tradition to rally non-secular support and claim the government’s illegitimacy. The subsequent institutionalisation of the Islamic Republic Party and its Islamic constitution created a dichotomous theocratic and democratic state in which an elected, albeit almost entirely clerical, parliament presided under Khomeini’s position as a supreme religious leader.

Factors leading up to the Iranian Revolution

A complex interplay of secular and non-secular politics, international relations and theological nationalisation led to the establishment of the current Iranian political system. The constitutional movement in Iran began with the 1906 Persian constitution in response to the exploitation of the decentralised Iranian government by Britain and Russia. Royal loans from such powers led to the imposition of tariffs and trade deals disadvantageous to Iran and resulted in widespread protests ultimately leading to the establishment of an electoral parliament. International powers again played a large role in Iranian politics in 1953 when the CIA initiated a coup d’etat and overthrew Prime minister Mohammed Mossadegh. Some of his non-secular followers formed the National Resistance Movement (NRM) whose ideology blended democracy and Islamic scripture and paved the way for Khomeini's rise to prominence.

The Power of Diversity in Chemistry

The meaning of Power

Power has different meanings across disciplines and contexts, but is generally described as "the ability to exert one's will over others by persuasion, influence or coercion." Power can be visible, hidden or invisible in different situations, and is deeply imbedded in society, acting as a framework for human and social interaction and the relationships between institutions and the public.

Power and Diversity

When thinking about diversity and power, there are multiple ways to connect the two. In positions of high power, there is often a lack of racial, ethnic and gender diversity, which was recently highlighted by the UK 2020 Colour of Power Index, concluding that "just 52 out of the 1099 most powerful roles in the country are filled by non-white individuals." This draws attention to the incredibly important issue of power in society, particularly the question of who is privileged enough to have the power and how the power is then used as a tool for authority. In academia, strong inequalities and power imbalances are also seen, which brings a new dimension to the idea of power and it's impact not only on societal relationships, but on the next generation.

The Power of Racial Diversity in Chemistry in the UK

Diversity is particular problem in the discipline of Chemistry. This is heavily emphasised through analysis of the HESA 2017/2018 data by The Royal Society of Chemistry, showing that 0% of chemistry professors across UK universities were black (figures rounded to the nearest 5). Such racial homogeneousness reinforces racial divides in academia, and restricts the representation of the voices in higher level Chemistry. These statistics show that Chemistry is depicted as racially uniform, and power is ultimately given to those who are given a voice, in this case primarily those of white ethnicity. This has negative implications and reprecussions for the discipline of Chemistry as whole, across a wide range of levels. First is the issue of student intake at degree level Chemistry. A lack of diversity amongst academics has the power to create barriers to certain student groups who are underrepresented in the discipline. This implicit exclusion perpetuates the problem, as it reinforces the idea for students that they do not 'fit in' or shouldn't study Chemistry. This sustains the mobilisation of bias, retaining power for the privileged who can access the education. As a result, minority students can feel marginalised and excluded, leading to increased feelings of isolation, with a consequent impact on motivation. This highlights the power diversity holds in encouraging students to pursue higher education, and the consequent impact this therefore has on the power distribution in society as a whole. If students go on to study at higher levels, publishing research and gaining status and academic authority, they are much more likely to have influence over governmental, scientific and public policy, therefore having higher levels of power. This is a perfect example of hidden power, and its role in undervaluing and silencing groups in society. If certain groups of students feel marginalised and are blocked from further education, their voices simply won't be represented to the same degree, causing whole groups to be denied the same level of power and influence as the commonly represented groups. This is also an example of power being exerted over these minority groups, because restricting access to education and resources is itself a display of the power institutions have over minorities and the power dynamics within society.

The Power of Gender Diversity in Chemistry in the UK

Further analysis of data from the HESA by the Royal Society of Chemistry also shows that "the percentage of minority ethnic chemical scientists in academia appears to drop significantly with increasing career stage," highlighting yet again how an increasing lack of diversity with increasing career stage gives power to a much narrower and more limited set of voices. This lack of diversity can also be seen in relation to gender too, as HESA reported in 2015 that only 9% of Chemistry professors were female, which further demonstrates the divides seen in academia and the disproportionality between the two sexes, although the figures are slowly increasing. Suppression of the number of females in academic Chemistry has significant knock on effects, not only on the gender disparity of students entering higher education, but on the public face of Chemistry as a whole. Men are the dominant sex in Chemistry, and this works to reinforce the idea in society that women are inferior, yet another example of indirect and institutionalised power seen in Chemistry.

Power in Education & Teaching

Background

Education studies and Teaching are described as the ‘study of the process of receiving and giving systematic instructions’. Degrees in these involve a range of critical and specialist perspectives, such as sociology which can discuss factors external to institutions and how these influence education and inclusivity, psychology to look at childhood and learning development, as well as key skills such as learning methods, inclusion, classroom dynamics and communication, amongst many others. As such graduates play a critical role in a range of areas, from working as primary teachers during key childhood development stages to others being responsible for inclusion policies in educational institutions. Power differences can be seen in many forms in the field and discipline of education.

Issues of Power

There is a hierarchy at all levels of education. While degrees such as MA in Teaching and Masters in Education provide specialised skills for micro-level training, and administration and policy respectively, academics in higher education often do not acquire said degrees to be in positions of leadership or power. Higher education academics who specialise in other fields are predominantly seen as more valued, and yet many of them are likely to lack key insights into the sensitivities of teaching through class-room dynamics or policies relating to inclusion for example. There is a potential for conflict between more powerful and rigid disciplines and ‘softer’ specialisations like Education.

Power parities can be seen in terms of representation as well. According to 2017-2018 statistics from the National Centre for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, there was a wide gap in the number of female degree holders and male degree holders, with as many as 52,287 more female graduates with Bachelor's degrees, 80,625 more with Master’s degrees and 4,556 more with Doctoral degrees, relative to male counterparts. In spite of these differences, there exists a wage gap, favouring male teachers despite many women occupying essential support roles in schools. In the same 2017-2018 period, a similar pattern was identified in the UK. Government data showed male teachers with equivalent skills were paid £900-£4000 more than women with equivalent skills despite the field being dominated by female teachers. The National Education Union highlighted how 36% of teachers in secondary schools across the UK were male, and yet 62% of leadership positions in these schools are filled by men. Decision-making and policy as such is influenced by these differences and can be biased.

Issues to do with race have also played out in the field. In the US for example, there has been growing diversity in the demographics of students from Kindergarten to 12th grade. One major problem identified in teacher education and teaching by the National Centre for Education Statistics (NCES, 2016) though was the dominant ‘whiteness’, as 82% of teachers identifying as white were found to be teaching students primarily of colour. Professors involved in the training of these teachers were also predominantly white, with up to 88% identifying as such, and they are said to have “left the ideological, behavioral, epistemological, philosophical, and emotional remnants of whiteness intact.” This ‘hierarchical relationship’ has been investigated to perpetuate stereotypes, drive unwarranted fear with regards to racial stereotypes, maintain dominant racial ideologies, and negatively impact students of colour through instillation and internalisation of cycles of racism. This can be so influential that the meaning of the word 'cultural diversity’ in teacher education research itself has been found to range extensively.

Power can ultimately play out as a mixture of strategy and indirect coercion, if not direct coercion, as seen for example in a study which found power and intimidation being used through language to disadvantage ESL students within the teacher-student relationship and coercion playing out in the selection of research participants in university-based research.

Non-decision making

Non-decision making (Bachrach and Baratz, 1970) is a method where individuals in positions of power block from discussion topics that threaten their status. This has the effect of maintaining the status quo: as the topic is not present in discussions, decisions cannot be made in relation to it.. This process can be seen in action in schools. Men tend to dominate the upper hierarchies of the schooling system: school governing bodies and school senior management teams either have a disproportionate number of male members, or are structured in a way which minimises feminine voices (see: Androcentrism). In England, only 38% of headteachers in secondary schools are women. Through this patriarchal inequality, issues in relation to female discrimination can be dismissed easily, excluding these issues from decision-making. Such issues include school dress code (banning of female students from wearing trousers), the prevention of a rugby training course for girls by a male headmaster, and power struggles between male teaching staff and female technical staff in a science department. Non-decision making in relation to female discrimination may occur in any area of a school system, partly due to academia's patriarchal history.

Power in Psychology

Background

Social sciences overlap when researching human ontology: how did we come to be the way we are, what knowledge have we accumulated, and how having that knowledge gives us power to become better people, and when has it been used badly. One extreme example of manipulating behaviours to achieve a set goal can be seen in Jon Ronson’s Psychopath Test – which looks at behaviour patterns unusual in the general public. Generally, people in positions of power display certain tendencies that allow them to behave in certain ways, sometimes with a certain intention and to act to manipulate (and many exert power through ideology and political theory more subtly). In a simple example, movements like #MeToo have aggregated what anthropologist and philosopher Claude Lévi-Strausscalled binary oppositions of pain over pleasure (he believed all words were binary oppositions) that derived from the power and knowledge (mostly) men held over women and their ability to psychologically manipulate and coerce women into behaviours abhorrent to them. In his book, “Thinking: Fast and Slow”, Daniel Kahnemann referred to this ability for direct coercion as “psychopathic charm.”

Philosopher and historian Michel Foucault called this “pouvoir-savoir” or “power knowledge” to be the entanglement of knowledge and power in historically specific circumstances. For Foucault, it was not just the domination that was resultant, but the “subjectivation” of humans into becoming “subjects”.

The Power Within

Kahnemann’s theory is interesting because he narrows Thinking down to two systems: fast, (automatic response) and slow, taking time to think things through , apply our knowledge and then respond, and change . “Changing one’s view about oneself is even harder” (Kahnemann. 2011. P 172), but it is possible. In his book, “The Happiness Hypothesis,” social psychologist Jonathan Haidt, claims there are three way you can change your mindset to be more positive: meditation, cognitive therapy or Prozac. (Haidt. 2006. P35).

Freudian psychology removes the power from the self and leads into “victimhood” – whatever happened to you as a child is why individuals are the way they are, and to resolve them you must undergo therapy. Aaron Beck, a psychologist in the 1960's at the University of Pennsylvania termed this the “Cognitive triad of depression”: “I am no good,” “My world is Bleak” “My Future is Hopeless” (Haidt. 2006. P37-38). Beck resolved to treat this with his Cognitive Therapy – where the individual takes back the power that has been institutionally removed from them and applies it in a positive way. Applied cognitive methodologies can change the balance of power: there have been documented increases in mental health issues, (many times the focus has been on how bad things are as opposed to how lucky we are – we are not sick, we have our health, we are studying in one of the finest institutions in the world, we have each other, we can go outside etc., there is no enemy!) When connected with other people, the self enlarges its capacity for positive thinking giving a multi-pronged approach to exert the self’s own power over its thinking. The intellect is separate to the mind – the intellect, or wisdom is fact based, the mind is the chit chat, the “monkey mind” or what the intellect/wisdom seeks to control.

The philosopher J. S. Mill wrote in "On Liberty" in 1859 that humans are free to say, think, feel what they want, as long as they do not harm others . He knew that knowledge evolved to a point where opinion converges and acceptance of hitherto unacceptable behaviours become the norm.. Haidt believes, in his 2018 book with Greg Lukianoff, "The Coddling of the American Mind" that Mill's book "is perhaps the most compelling argument ever made for why we need to interact with people who see things differently from ourselves".(Lukianoff and Haidt, 2018. P248)

Nevertheless, The German sociologist Herbert Marcuse wrote an essay entitled, “Repressive Tolerance” claiming having power only entrenches that power and comes to dominate institutions and that tolerance is “repressive”. A “liberating tolerance” is one that favours the weak and inhibits the strong. Marcuse believed this was easily separable into the Right and Left of political thought. He thought it justifiable to subvert Right leaning majorities in favour of Left leaning minorities. If this did not achieve equality, then he thought it would be up to universities to teach this, “The restoration of freedom of thought may necessitate new and rigid restrictions on teaching and practices in the educational institutions, which serve to enclose the mind within the established universe of discourse and behaviour”. (Marcuse, Wolff and Moore jr, 1965. p100-101).

The analysis of power relationships among groups was clearly demarcated by Kimberlé Crenshaw when applying knowledge to the experience of black women, in particular. In her analysis of Intersectionality, discrimination can happen at certain inflections including gender, race, age. In her Ted Talk in 2016, she said, “where there is no name for a problem, you can't see a problem, and when you can’t see a problem, you pretty much can’t solve it.” The words she uses in her table of Privilege (dominant) vs Oppression (subservient) may be binary oppositions and situations are never dichotomous, and so we all intersect at different points. There is a need for understanding and awareness, and the need to avoid tribalism.

Conclusion

The psychological toolbox includes meditation (visualisation, vipassana, breath work), mindfulness (awareness) and cognitive therapy. Learning these from a young age shows reductions in anxiety and depression and our ability for tolerance. There is power in knowing that we are not our thoughts and that everything change.(If I wrote this again, I would not be able to write it exactly the same because it has changed, I have changed, my thoughts have changed in that time.) Thus knowledge gives us multiple strategies for using power to create a positive environment, where we can all thrive, and have a happier, more compassionate society.

Power in different disciplines towards Social Media

Background

As social media takes an increasing place in today's society, fake news and misinformation are emerging through all social media platforms. Many people are relying on social media as a source of news. A study shows that one-fifth of adults and most young people between 18 - 25 years old in America go to social networks to access news in 2018. We define online social media as websites and mobile applications that allow users to network with friends and that promote social interaction between individuals, groups of individuals or organisations. In 2020, over 3.6 billion people were using social media worldwide and this number keeps increasing. Consequently, untrue content has influenced audiences unable to distinguish truth from fact or news from propaganda. This matters when politics are at stake, for example in times of presidential elections in the midst of a global pandemic. As a result, social media holds power over people. Such power can sometimes be positive, but also harmful.

Social media as a means of communication in politics

Politics today is in the midst of change. If before the politician was inaccessible, a refugee in his instances, he has now become a friend. Twitter, Facebook and Instagram have become means of local communication with the population. The era of political information has given way to the era of political communication. In addition to this, one acquires political knowledge by visiting websites developed for political campaigns. These sponsored posts ensure the happiness of the brands that use them to promote products to new buyers and politicians because these advertising messages are digital display tools for electoral purposes. This notion is very well illustrated by the American presidential election of 2020. The two opponents, Joe Biden and Donald Trump have 14 million and 32.3 million subscribers respectively. To show the importance of social networks, a Master Social Media Guidance was published by Joe Biden's team during the presidential campaign.

Social media & company perceptions in economics

Reasons for social media usage by enterprises in Sweden in 2017, by size of enterprise

Social media are an integral part of the daily life of Internet users. It is therefore critical for companies to manage their online presence proactively for brand perception and recruitment. Internet penetration is broad in the Sweden market, with 9 million Internet users in 2019 (98% of the country's population). A business has the power to reach out to social media. Indeed, the graph shows us that 76% of large companies in Sweden use social networks in a greater extent, as to recruit employees or to develop the company and its image.

Social media in the business sphere have many benefits. First of all, it is an excellent way to communicate about promotions, events, or any other announcement. Indeed, communicating on social networks offers additional advantages compared to traditional media such as the low cost. Social media allows you to improve the visibility and referencing of your site, generating more traffic and ultimately in an increase in customers. The more traffic a page or account generates, the larger the community will become. As a result, thanks to social networks, Internet users will be able to relay information provided by the company, with the aim of informing their own communities and ultimately increasing the customer base. While social media have many advantages in the business environment, they can also be harmful to a company's image. It is therefore important to manage them with care and manage the associated risks (negative image, wrong tone in posts). Furthermore, a page or account can very quickly be discredited through negative comments or the rapid spread of false rumours, enabled by the power of social media.

How power plays a role in psychology: the example of lockdown

A team of researchers from King's College London in the United Kingdom analysed the results of 24 scientific studies. These studies looked at the psychological effects of quarantine in a dozen different countries affected by epidemics such as SARS, Ebola, H1N1 influenza, etc. Their results were published on 14 March 2020 in the medical journal The Lancet. The fear of being infected or of transmitting the virus to one's family was present among many participants, as was the fear of not having enough basic supplies. The loss of the usual routine and the reduction of social and physical contact often proved to be the cause of boredom, frustration and feelings of isolation among the interviewees.

The study also showed that confining the population for several weeks is far from harmless for our mental health.

Since 23 March 2020, the first day of the English COVID-induced, scientists have been trying to measure the importance of social networks in the daily lives of English people. Researchers from the University of Manchester reveal that many people find each other and maintain the link thanks to social networks: mostly to keep in touch with their loved ones, but also to get information, to have fun, to work or to play sports.

However, social media has not always been a benefit during isolation. The time spent on social networks has increased during this pandemic. Social media posts are filled with inaccuracies about science. According to CNN Health, a quarter of YouTube videos on this topic contain false information. The issue is that 70% of adults go online to find health advice and 62 million people have watched these misleading videos.

One of the big problems for controlling the Social Media platforms is that they have expanded so quickly, and so massively, that there is no regulation. In the UK, people like Helena Kennedy QC, who sits in the House of Lords are helping to formulate regulation with bodies like 5 Rights Foundation.

Another issue is the use of data - our data is collected, mainly for free, and is used by the technology companies to target us with personalised ads, news stories and anything else they believe would fall into our interest categories. This is why people see different news stories, the "fake news", conspiracy theories and other anecdotally referenced news rather than fact based news - we do not all see the same news.

Conclusion

The birth of social media is very recent, started in the early 2000s. Several billion people in the world use them today, and some say that they control our lives. They have the power to influence us in our political and administrative decisions for example. However, they also have the power to help us keep in touch with our friends and family. Social networks assume a kind of fifth "raw" power, next of the traditional media and press. Journalists speak about The Fifth Estate.

Power in Anthropology

Introduction

Anthropology, the study of humanity, was described by Dell Hynes as specialising "in the study of Others". The concept of the Other, which was first developed by Hegel, was defined in the context of anthropology by Jacob Pandian as "characteristics which are alien to the western tradition". Historically, the interest of anthropologists was with cultures seen as "primitive", and was steeped in colonial thought. The link between the discipline and colonialism is inextricable: its initial purpose in the 1930s was to aid colonialism, for example the British expansion into Eastern Nigeria during this time period. Colonialism is seen as an important issue in modern anthropology, as a phenomenon in human history, and also in relation to the discipline's history. Colonialism is described as a nation exerting control and exploiting another country, region or culture. This aligns well with R. A. Dahl's definition of power as direct coercion, that "A has power over B to the extent that he can get B to do something that B would not otherwise do". In the context of colonialism the “A” nation has the power to exploit and control the “B” nation, even against its best interests.

Case Study: The Yanomami

There is an intrinsic power dynamic in ethnographic field work between the researcher and the subject. This can be seen in the research of the Yanomami, an Amazonian indigenous group that inhabit numerous separate villages in Venezuela and Brazil which have been subject to a multiplicity of Western anthropological studies since the 20th Century. The work of Napoleon Chagnon are the most publicised, yet not without controversy. Chagnon was accused of not practicing cultural relativism: in his writings he portrayed the group as particularly violent, perpetuating the primitive savage stereotype of indigenous cultures. His methods of ethnographic field work were also criticised, as anthropologist Marshall Sahlins argued that trading of steel weaponry for ethnographic information with the Yanomami helped to escalate violence between villages. The power held by researchers over their subjects include the ability to represent their culture to the world, the capacity for exploitation, and the power of interference.

Power in Subjectivation

Michel Foucault held this "pouvoir-savoir" or "power-knowledge" to be the entanglement of knowledge and power in historically specific circumstances. For Foucault, it was not just domination that was resultant, but the "subjectivation" of humans, into becoming "subjects". The acquiescence of experts, people and societies under intense pressure to conform to power reduces the freedom for intellectual curiosity and is reductionist and abusive in its nature.

The acquiescence to power, or subjectivation, is easily demonstrated through the process of colonisation. Many European nations sacked Africa and beyond for territory, resources and manpower. The "subjects" learned how to think and act according to institutionalised Colonialist power structures and systems. From an historical anthropologic point of view, one easily accessible aspect, "Orientalism", Edward Said wrote, was a Western (Colonial) representation of the Arab Islamic world. There is a discourse on "Power Knowledge: the Powerful (the West) vs the Powerless (the Orient), an intrinsic part of the West's political unconscious bias that is still widespread today. The belief that one culture is superior to another. Said argued Orientalism "failed to identify with human experience". Indigenous Maori woman Linda Smith wrote that "history is mostly about power", and that hers are “genealogical, cultural and political set of experiences” (Smith.2012.p12)

Modern Day

Although anthropology has shifted focus away from studying the Other in more recent years, there is still an issue of power even when studying other groups. Firstly, there is the contentious idea that the anthropological "gaze" is voyeuristic, that it doesn't give the subject a voice. Recently developed branches of anthropology often focus on marginalised groups, for example queer studies and black studies. A non-white or non-queer researcher in these fields are in a position of privilege over their subjects, and are able to step away from the issues that their subjects are experiencing. These pervasive issues, in addition to anthropology's difficult colonial past, show there is much work to be done by anthropologists to deal with the issue of power within their discipline.

Power in Cartography

Maps, and the processes of map-making, with their various demarcations or deliberate omissions, are inextricable expressions of knowledge-power. From even the first generally accepted pre-modern map, the Babylonian Imago Mundi, cartographers have both directly and indirectly exerted power over the naïve map consumer. Regardless of context, from early colonial mapping techniques to the development of highly sophisticated geographic information systems (GIS) as a result of the U.S. military-industrial complex, cartography as a discipline sits directly at the intersection of many forms of power.

Cartography as Direct Coercion

Considering the various definitions of truth, cartography as a field might be understood to subscribe to a realist conception of truth, acting as a mirror which accurately reflects what exists and the relative physical location of those existent objects. Such a statement might align, at least in intent, with the Babylonian Imago Mundi, a clay tablet projection which aimed to map the "known" world circa 700-500 BC. However, much like the popular Mercator map projection which gradually distorts relative size and distance as latitude increases, the practice of map-making has steadily undergone a distortion of its own, first wed to the establishment of monarchic power then co-opted by the emergence of the state in the 1600s with the Treaty of Westphalia. The new inseparable aim of cartography became the delineation of states' borders and the establishment of new trade routes. Maps, in turn, became the exacting record of the major European powers racing to expand ownership to commercially viable territories. Such a trajectory demonstrates the intrinsic link between the methodologies and processes of cartography and the evolution of direct, coercive forms of power in the discipline.

Cartography as Indirect Coercion

In addition to the power of cartography in the directly coercive colonist-colonized dynamic, the map-making discipline also exerts a subtler form of power in its influence on social constructs and the formation of cultural understanding. Brian Harley, prominent geographer and cartographer of the 20th century, posited that the omissions and indirect power of maps stem from the “silences which arise from deliberate policies of secrecy and censorship” in the discipline. Not only does the cartographer possess the direct power of the map production processes, but also the subsequent indirect power of the map as its used in the broader societal context. Building on this societal context and considering the field of power-relations in which maps are created, cartography has historically indirectly played into inequality of opportunity in that the dominant elite classes have often disproportionately benefitted from the use of such cartographic creations. Therefore, in addition to the power demonstrated in the production process of maps, the telling economic, historic, and socio-political circumstances which led to such production also merits consideration.

The Power of Advertising

Advertising is potentially one of the most influential disciplines established in the 20th and 21st century. The power that it holds within society is immense, it is capable of deciding social and market trends. The true power of advertising is first, truly, seen under the work of Edward Bernays. Bernays was the nephew of Freud, and drew upon Freud's work in order to tap into the mind of the public. His most famous work, was in regard to the Torches of Freedom, a movement created in order to encourage more women to smoke in what was a societally frowned upon activity. The main aspect of his plan was to turn the cigarette into a symbol for feminine empowerment and as a symbol for gender equality. This lead contributed greatly to the steady increase of women smokers, from 5% in 1923 to 18.1% in 1935 to 33.3% by 1965, and by the 90s, the message of "Torches of Freedom", began to be used in cigarette exports to emerging markets. This example clearly shows that marketing can be effective: over the space of a decade it can create large demand for a product out of next to nothing.

One consideration to take is that this example is set in the 1920s; the access to markets and the ability and effectiveness of the spread of information was incredibly limited when compared to the globalised world that we live in today. The estimated radio ownership for a family in America was around 35-40% by 1929, and comparing this to smartphone ownership in America in 2019 at 90% exemplifies how adverts can reach a significantly greater audience, especially if we take into account the differing nature between smartphones and radios; smartphones can be accessed anywhere and can provide more information. Combining this with the capitalist ethos of hyper-consumerism, the shortening attention span of each generation and the increasing media consumption of each generation, it is clear what role advertising is to play in the future.

Bernays indeed did foresee the growing necessity and need for advertising. He devised the concept of "Engineered Consent", where, when democracy was pushed due to the growing masses, the need for manufactured obedience through the creation of ideas (by the ruling minority) and implantation (into the masses) would ensure democracy's survival, or at least capitalism's. It is thus clear that the power that advertising holds over consumers is immense.

However, it is not only consumers that advertising has a hold over: it can lead to the domination of an industry and formation of monopolies through entry barriers. This is highlighted by the importance of distribution costs, where adverts have become a necessity, especially in today's world, and if one cannot generate demand for a product then the business will fail. In already saturated or monopolised industries this means immense costs in order to compete, which is why it can act as such a barrier. As such, both of these points highlight the immense power that advertising holds, both in the controlling and monopolising of an industry, and over the consumer/citizen in regards to both what they want to buy as well as what they should believe in.

The power of digital marketing

A simple definition of power could be the ability to alter behaviours and events. The power of digital marketing implies that this specific discipline can offer more market power to businesses. Market power or monopoly power is when a company can raise its prices above the area where there would be competition.

Introduction to digital marketing

Digital marketing compared to traditional marketing regroups every marketing entity that can be found through the use of electronic devices and more specifically, the internet. With this discipline, firms are now able to offer their services and products on websites, mobile phones, social media, emails, videos and various search engines. In this digital era to be competitive in any sector, nowadays a business tends to have a say on the internet.

The power the digital has given to the marketing

The new strategy to follow and meet the demands of the new digital wave of customers is digital marketing.With digital marketing, firms have the power to vary the audience they're trying to attract as they can develop various strategies. Compared to traditional marketing where a firm has to wait for the end of a publicity campaign to see if their products have worked, with the use of internet firms have a quick overview of the progress of their product with elements such as views, reposts or likes. As these reactions are live companies can adapt directly to be as efficient as possible. Internet is an opportunity for businesses to respond as precisely as possible to consumers needs. Digital marketing has also reassured customers and increased their loyalty to a brand. Customers can find reliable information about products or services on websites at any time of the day. They can in a few minutes compare the prices of the same product to make the best choice which enhances their satisfaction. Programmes are set to make sure customers stay loyal to the brand, such as websites that remember you and can even propose things that you might like based on your previous orders. The relatively low cost of digital marketing has also made it a solid strategy to adopt as small companies are now able to compete with firms that already have an absolute monopoly on the market. This starts a trend where even wealthy companies are obliged to follow as they will not be able to compete with other companies indefinitely with traditional marketing.

The increasing power of digital marketing with globalization

Globalization is a phenomenon where goods and services are becoming available all over the world with the development of Information communication technologies(ICT). This has changed the world of marketing and enlarged its horizons. Daily everyday activities have become digital activities. Everyone using the internet is susceptible to be under the influence of digital marketing. Digital marketing has allowed the brand to play a role in daily lives. Internet is the most potent tool of globalization with, for example, brands such as Uber which is the largest taxi company in the world but doesn't own actual cars. Marketing strategies have followed the globalization movement making the content king and not the customers anymore. One of the most significant power Digital Marketing detain over this globalized era, is the exposure it provokes. The power to be heard and seen worldwide provides to the buisness undeniable benefits.

Power in Fashion

Power of identity

Fashion is by its own nature, intrinsically tied to the identity of the individual. Clothes detains a certain power: one that is of resistance, defiance, strength. It helps in the assertion of one’s identity, membership to a cause, or beliefs. Some argues that a person's choice of clothing is an important factor in how the world perceives him or her. The power that one affirms at first sight is often linked to one's self-esteem and daring choices of clothing would help in the build up of this self-esteem. One historical evidence of the power fashion displays, can be found within the traditional Indian clothing: the Khadi. Indeed, according to Emma McCledon, this clothing proclaimed a significant political statement promoting the Indian autonomy from the British influence. Thus, revealing itself as a symbol of power and conviction.

Fashion as a soft power

Fashion is a tool of great influence for a nation too. It's soft power constitutes a motif of interest for foreigners. Indeed, according to the British Council, “22% of young people in countries that are strategically important to the UK cited fashion as being something that made the UK attractive to them”. This data underscores the real importance of Fashion in broader terms than just identity but as being crucial for political interest.. Today, fashion plays an important role in portraying ideas and values politically speaking. We could think about Michelle Obamas dress exacerbating diversity during her husbands presidency in 2008 or even Hillary Clinton and Angela Merkel in their famous suits to support feminism. The fashion one choses to follow and adhere to, helps them formulate a statement. Feminism is a great example of how fashion manifests itself as a political tool. Suffragettes used it as a symbolic emblem to manifest their ideas and conviction to empower women. Their choice of adhering to a rather masculine fashion ( for their generation ) revealed their willingness to challenge the society’s traditional scheme.

Power in Philanthropy

Introduction

Philanthropy is the efforts of private individuals to improve the quality of life of other individuals or groups. Philanthropy is distinguished from governmental support and business ventures by the motives and actors within the system. Governmental support is differentiated from philanthropy by its actors - the former being acts by a public body for public good, while business endeavours differs from philanthropy in its motives (monetary gain in contrast with general social improvement) . Philanthropy has emerged as an academic discipline with the University of Kent offering a masters in Philanthropic Studies.

Power in Philanthropy

Classical references to philanthropy show an inherent association with power in the act, with Plutarch associating philanthropy with civilisation, and obscurity with a lack of philanthropy and Plato in ‘Laws’ comparing Titanic philanthropy with human dominance over domesticated animals . Philanthropy has been noted as one expression of soft power in international politics, which is an implicit form of power that works with attraction and subversive methods in contrast to the explicit expression of hard power . The one sided relationship between grantors and grantees contains an inherent power dynamic, which has effects beyond this closed relationship. The nuances of this dynamic have been explained as ‘power with’ and ‘power over’ grantees. The former refers to the original goals of philanthropy and the empowerment of grantees, while the latter refers to manipulative influence. They are not mutually exclusive.

Controversies of Power in Philanthrophy

Political Actors

When actors in a philanthropic relationship wield a lot of global influence, the power dynamic between the two can have large scale effects outside of the relationship. This is the case in controversies surrounding donor systems for political bodies. The financial support possible by monied actors gives added weight to their voices that is not possible to those without the same access to funds. This poses a threat to the democratic system when voices do not have the same weight, fundamentally undermining democracy’s key tenets.

Voluntourism

Voluntourism (also called international volunteering) is a portmanteau of volunteering and tourism, and is leisure travel with the intent to volunteer. Its supporters see it as positive endeavour for all parties: the volunteers have an enjoyable experience and those they are supporting get help and resources. It has also been called a humanising response to an impersonal trend in globalisation. Critics of international volunteering see it as propagation of neocolonialism and a perpetuation of the ‘white saviour’ complex.