Preface: Empowering India Digitally

Preface: The Confluence of Technology and Society

In the past three to four decades, the remarkable revolution in technology has drastically and fundamentally changed our lives. How has the digital revolution closely impacted the lives of Indians, and what are the associated opportunities as well as risks and problems?

The reason for choosing the title

Ancient Meitei letter meaning Backbone

First of all, it is necessary to explain why we have chosen this title Public Digital Backbone? The title "Public Digital Backbone" embodies the essence of India's digital transformation journey. Just as the backbone is central to the human body, connecting and supporting various parts, this digital backbone serves as the core support system for various digital initiatives in India. It's more than just a network or infrastructure; it's the very foundation that upholds and empowers the nation's digital ecosystem. This backbone doesn't merely provide services but creates an environment where different platforms, services, and stakeholders come together, flourish, and evolve. It gives everyone, from citizens, government entities to private sectors, the freedom to build upon and customize it, reflecting the inclusivity and democratic nature of the initiative. By naming the book "Public Digital Backbone", we want to highlight this initiative's pivotal role in driving India's digital progress, fostering innovation, and ensuring benefits reach every citizen.

Trailblazers of Modern India: Innovations and Pioneers in Science and Technology

This image summarizes the contributions of Great Indian Mathematician Aryabhata.

After India's independence, the past 75 years have witnessed a rapid transformation in the lives of its citizens. This is predominantly attributed to the innovative endeavors of Indian scientists and the unwavering support they received from the political leadership.

Dr. Vikram Sarabhai, considered the father of India's space research program, established the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) in 1962. ISRO has played a pivotal role in placing India on the global space exploration map, with recent accomplishments like the Chandrayaan mission to the moon being a testament to their capabilities.Dr. Homi Bhabha laid the foundation of the atomic energy program in India by establishing the Tarapur Atomic Power Plant in 1948. This initiative set the stage for India becoming self-reliant in the field of nuclear energy. P.C. Mahalanobis pioneered the realm of statistics and planning in India. He founded the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO), which stands today as one of the largest statistical institutions in the country.Former President Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam was instrumental in developing India's Agni and Prithvi missile systems, fortifying the nation's defense capabilities.Dr. Sam Pitroda brought a revolutionary change to India's telecommunication landscape by introducing modern digital telecommunications systems. This led to the establishment of Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL) and the development of a national-level fiber optic network Nandan Nilekani’s contribution lines up and should be seen in the same league as the great men listed above. Nandan Nilekani, renowned as a significant technologist, entrepreneur, and social innovator, laid the foundation for the Aadhaar project. He also pioneered the concept of Digital Public Infrastructure, which is the topic of this book.

Aryabhata was India's first satellite and was designed for studies of X-ray astronomy, aeronomics and solar physics.

All these illustrious Indian scientists and innovators, through their notable contributions, have positioned India at a prestigious place in the fields of science and technology. Their achievements serve as a profound inspiration for India's future.

The Dual Face of Digital India:-

Before proceeding, it's essential to acknowledge that every coin has two sides.

The renowned economist Joan Robinson once said, "Anything you can say about India, the opposite is also true," and this aptly applies to the topic at hand.

India is recognized as 'Digital India', but inherent contradictions persist. On one hand, India ranks second globally in the number of active Internet users and is also the second-highest in social media usage. On the other, over the past five years, India has been the country to impose the most Internet shutdowns. In 2022 alone, India enforced 84 Internet shutdowns, the highest amongst the G-20 nations.

Ms. Sunarti from Bantul Yogyakarta benefits from the SME Academy to learn skills that helps her manage business in making a local snack 'Bakpia.' She a member of 'Srikandi' women's business group from Sentolo, Bantul district, Indonesia.

This behavior stands in stark contrast to the objectives of Digital India. The slogan of Digital India is 'Nobody will be left behind'. Without Internet access, there's no connectivity. And without connectivity, how can people fulfill basic needs like ration, or carry out transactions via UPI?

The direct impact of Internet shutdowns not only affects employment and economic activities but also infringes upon democratic rights. Such shutdowns clearly violate citizens' freedom of expression.

The Indian government has repeatedly used this tactic for authoritarian purposes. This was evident during the farmers' protests and before the Uttar Pradesh legislative assembly elections when internet shutdowns were imposed in several regions.

If India aims for digital growth and global leadership, it must cease these frequent Internet shutdowns. India has pledged in this year's G-20 Digital Economy Working Group to develop a human rights-centric digital infrastructure.

To honor this commitment, India needs to abandon the path of Internet shutdowns. Moreover, while the world is moving towards 5G and 6G, millions of Indians are still stuck on 2G. Without addressing these contradictions, 'Digital India' remains a distant dream.

But then why to discuss Digital Public Infrastructure at all? Why it is so relevant?

Because the global world is divided between the south and the north. Digital Public Infrastructure is capable addressing this question. It is an instrument in the fight against this divide.

Is it valid to argue that the Public Digital Backbone serves as both a quest and a means of equalization? Is the Public Digital Backbone a pursuit and a catalyst for achieving equality? Can we contend that the Public Digital Backbone is on a mission to promote equalization?

It may sound as a tall claim. The claim is made in spite of knowing difficulties and obstacles. But we feel it is worth debating it instead brushing it aside.

The Global South: An Analysis of Socioeconomic Divide

The concept of a digital social structure and debates around 'universalism' may not yet be fully understood. To grasp this, it's essential to first understand the ongoing debate of the global North vs. South and the reality behind it.

The term "Global South" generally refers to a group of countries including those in South and Central America, African nations, ASEAN countries, Pacific Island nations, the Indian subcontinent, Middle Eastern nations, and China. In essence, the Global South typically represents regions such as Latin America, Asia, Africa, and Oceania. Interestingly, no European country is considered part of the Global South. The global North-South divide is a prevailing reality, signifying that Northern countries are wealthier and more developed than their Southern counterparts. Northern countries tend to suppress the South, hindering their path to development. The reasons for this divide include:

Legacy of the Colonial Era: Northern countries colonized and ruled over Southern countries for centuries, during which they exploited their resources, causing economic weaknesses.

Unjust Global Economic Systems: The current global economic system often benefits the North while disadvantaging the South. For example, international trade agreements restrict Southern countries from protecting their industries.

Technological Shortfalls: The lack of modern technology in the South acts as a barrier to their development.

Instability: Often, countries in the South face political and social turmoil, stalling their progress.

Because of this division, Southern countries face numerous challenges, such as:

Poverty: A significant problem in the South, with more than 80% of the world's impoverished population residing there.

Illiteracy: Over two-thirds of the world's illiterate population lives in the South.

Health Issues: More than 90% of those affected by diseases like malaria and AIDS are in the South.

Understanding this divide is crucial to acknowledging the global challenges and addressing them holistically.

Addressing the Global Divide

To eradicate this division, the global community needs to take several steps, including:

Reforming the Global Economic System: The global economic system should be restructured to provide equal opportunities to all nations.

Spreading Technology: It's essential to disseminate modern technology across countries in the Global South, allowing them to accelerate their development.

Establishing Stability: Stability needs to be established in the countries of the Global South, ensuring they can focus on their development without any hindrance.

Comparing Western, Chinese, and Indian Approaches to Personal Identification: The Supremacy of Aadhaar

In an era marked by rapid technological advancements and a digital revolution, the approach to personal identification has emerged as a significant point of contention globally. The Western, Chinese, and Indian methods are representative of diverse philosophies on governance, data privacy, and the role of the state. Among these approaches, India's Aadhaar system stands out as a pioneering solution, tailor-made for the modern, digital age.

Western Approach: The Western perspective, particularly as exemplified by the United States and European Union, leans heavily on individual privacy and rights. While the US has been market-centric, allowing innovation to flourish with minimal regulations, Europe has become the torchbearer for data privacy. The European Union's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) encapsulates this ethos, placing the onus of data protection on service providers, and emphasizing the right of individuals to control their personal data.

Chinese Approach: In stark contrast, China's approach is one of state control and censorship. Under the guise of "cyber-sovereignty", China heavily regulates and monitors internet usage within its borders. The famous "Great Firewall" restricts access to foreign websites, and the government relies heavily on private enterprises, like Alibaba and WeChat, to collect and share user data. While this method ensures significant control over the digital ecosystem and deters potential external influences, it also curtails freedom and privacy.

India's Aadhaar: The Indian approach is a harmonious blend of technological advancement and individual empowerment. Aadhaar, the world's largest biometric ID project, was established to provide a trustworthy identity to every resident of India. Instead of being a tool of surveillance or a mere regulatory compliance, Aadhaar functions as a "foundational ID", enabling citizens to access a plethora of services, from banking to social welfare, with a single identity.

There are several reasons why Aadhaar emerges as a superior solution:

1. Public Good: Aadhaar was constructed as public infrastructure, ensuring that the primary motive was societal benefit and not profit. Unlike private Western platforms that collect data for advertising revenue, Aadhaar collects minimal data – name, date of birth, address, and gender.

2. Transparency and Privacy: While there is transparency in transactions with Aadhaar, there's also inbuilt privacy. The system does not store the purpose or nature of a transaction, ensuring user confidentiality.

3. Empowerment through Data: Aadhaar is a testament to the belief that individuals should be empowered by their data. The associated systems, like the Unified Payments Interface (UPI) and e-KYC, are manifestations of this principle, streamlining processes and increasing accessibility.

4. Interoperability: The Aadhaar system's integration into various services, like banking and telecommunications, ensures seamless and efficient interactions. This interoperability encourages competition and enhances consumer choice.

5. Affordability and Scalability: The Aadhaar system was established at a minimal cost of approximately $1 per resident, a model of efficiency and scalability.

6. A Model for Others: Aadhaar's success has made it a model for other nations, with countries like Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Rwanda exploring similar systems.

While the West grapples with the balancing act of innovation and privacy, and China leans heavily on state control, India's Aadhaar stands out as an innovative solution, optimized for the modern digital age. Its focus on individual empowerment, transparency, and public good makes it not just a robust identification system but also a beacon for digital infrastructure development globally.

There is an important coveat in all the above discussion. In modernism the world has progressively turned into datafication. The process started sometime around 1900 and going on unabbeted with ever accelerated speed.

There has arisen a question as to what is primary? humanity or technology? This is not confined to only datafication but to the other technologies like nuclear, genetic upto AI. Solution to that is of course not going backward but interpret modernism in favor of the humanity.

Datafication and Aadhaar: The Pursuit of a Better Personal Identification System

In today's rapidly digitizing world, datafication is inevitable. As individuals and institutions grow increasingly reliant on digital platforms, personal identification becomes paramount, ensuring that online interactions are both authentic and secure. The Aadhaar system, introduced by the Indian government, represents a significant step forward in this realm, aiming to provide a universal identification for every Indian citizen. While Aadhaar has showcased numerous advantages, there is an inherent necessity to continually evolve and seek better solutions to address emerging challenges.

Aadhaar: A Pioneer in Modern Identification

Aadhaar, at its core, is a 12-digit unique identification number linked to an individual's biometric and demographic data. Launched as the world's largest biometric ID system, it has bridged gaps in accessibility and inclusivity for millions. By linking numerous services under one umbrella, Aadhaar has simplified administrative processes, reduced paperwork, and increased transparency in transactions.

Furthermore, Aadhaar has empowered those on the margins. The rural population, for instance, has been able to access government welfare schemes more efficiently, eliminating the middlemen and reducing corruption. For many, Aadhaar is not merely an ID but a ticket to numerous services and opportunities.

The Concerns and the Need for Improvement

However, as with any large-scale system, Aadhaar has its criticisms. Privacy concerns top the list. Given the vast amount of personal data stored, the potential for misuse or breaches cannot be overlooked. Critics argue that centralizing such a vast array of information makes it an attractive target for hackers and unauthorized entities.

Additionally, while biometrics offer a certain level of precision, they aren't infallible. Mistakes in capturing data, system errors, or even natural changes in an individual’s biometrics can lead to discrepancies, leaving some citizens potentially disenfranchised.

Moreover, Aadhaar's pervasiveness in daily life has led to debates about its mandatory nature. Concerns arise when it starts becoming the sole key to essential services, potentially leaving out those who, for various reasons, are not enrolled or face technical issues.

The Road Ahead: Envisioning a Better System

To make Aadhaar, or any future identification system, more robust and universally accepted, several measures can be considered:

Strengthening Data Security: Investing in cutting-edge encryption methods and regularly updating security protocols can help ensure data safety. Regular third-party audits can identify vulnerabilities before they're exploited.

Decentralization: Instead of a single, massive database, a distributed ledger system, like blockchain, could be employed. This would provide a secure, transparent, and tamper-proof record of transactions.

Enhanced Privacy Controls: Giving individuals greater control over their data, including who can access it and for what purpose, can alleviate privacy concerns.

Inclusivity and Flexibility: While the goal should be universal coverage, systems should be flexible enough to accommodate those who might face challenges in enrollment or usage.

Continuous Feedback and Evolution: No system is perfect at inception. Regular feedback from users, experts, and stakeholders, followed by iterative improvements, can ensure that the identification system remains relevant and effective.

Datafication is a double-edged sword

While it offers unparalleled convenience and efficiency, it also brings forth challenges in privacy, security, and inclusivity. Aadhaar, as a pioneering effort, has illuminated both the potential and pitfalls of such a system. As society continues to evolve and technology advances, the quest for the perfect personal identification system will continue. The lessons learned from Aadhaar can guide future endeavors in creating a system that is not only robust and secure but also respects the rights and dignity of every individual.

While the problems of vulnerable communities are not to be denied and should be fought back and demanded solutions and problems of digital divide, connectivity, Internet blackouts are real problems, we should not throw the baby out with the bath water. Otherwise we will be the loosers as society as a whole in the race to modernisation.

In this context Moody's objections to Aadhaar and Indian government's reaction to that are worth mentioning.

Digital Transformation: Challenging Dominance and Shaping Socio-Political Landscapes.

The concept of 'Digital Public Infrastructure' holds the potential to be a solution to the persistent divides of this century. This idea, proposed by Nandan Nilekani and the subsequent practical experiments conducted under his guidance in India, has set the stage for its potential realization.

Historically, developed countries like America and Europe have often advised developing nations that their path to development is to abandon their own traditions and embrace Western culture and values, suggesting that it is in their best interest and is the key to their freedom. The implication is that there's only one path, one option available to the developing world. If they don't follow this, their backwardness and poverty will persist, a sentiment that is repeatedly reinforced. However, behind this seemingly benevolent advice lurks a violent dominance. Mahatma Gandhi recognized this dominance and understood that its resistance couldn't be met with violence. Thus, he equipped the masses with the nonviolent weapon of Satyagraha, leading India to its freedom. But an independent India needed technological support for its development. A nonviolent tech revolution was required, but the essence of this tech remained unexplored in the post-Gandhi era of Gandhism. The Digital Public Infrastructure initiative is a step in this direction.

Language, communication, and technologies are not apolitical and asocial as is commonly believed. It is a misconception that technology is 'neutral'. Technologies have their natural tendencies – both in a positive and negative sense. It's now evident and proved that every technology has its own politics.Their uses is another ball game driven by socio-political forces. It doesn't become apparent unless you listen and read carefully and scratch underneath the surface. The atomic technology that devastated Hiroshima and Nagasaki and killed millions was celebrated by democratic nations. The recent movie 'Oppenheimer' sparked significant discussion around and about the politics of atomic technology. The current war in Ukraine is happening before us in today's world is dominantly technological. There were debates around genetic engineering and blockchain technology. Before, there were discussions on computer technology and ethics related to that which is almost forgotten now. Currently, artificial intelligence is a hot topic of discussion. These discussions are not futile and are very close to our daily lives than we realize.

Digital Advancements in India: Bridging Gaps and Building Trust

India has made significant strides in the realm of digital public infrastructure. This foundational infrastructure has brought transformative changes in the lives of its citizens. For instance, the 'Aadhaar' system ensures that millions in India can directly benefit from banking, pensions, and grant-related services. The Unified Payments Interface (UPI) has revolutionized the digital payment sector in India, making money transfers more convenient and secure for its citizens. Decades ago, Rajiv Gandhi famously remarked that only fifteen paise of every rupee meant for welfare schemes reach the intended beneficiaries. With the revolution in digital technology, it's now possible to mitigate such financial discrepancies. The Digilocker provides individuals the convenience of securely storing and verifying their essential documents. Through the Account Aggregator (AA) technology, individuals can now securely share their personal data to avail various services.

Analyzing the Utilization of Digital Infrastructure in India

To truly grasp the immense scale of digital public infrastructure in India, consider the following statistics:

Aadhaar: Number of biometric authentication transactions - 1.3 billion, Unsuccessful biometric authentications – Over 100 million, Biometric authentication errors – Over 100 million

UPI (Unified Payments Interface): Daily transactions - More than 20 billion, Monthly transactions - Over 30 trillion (more than 1000 billion), Annual transactions - Exceeding 12 trillion (12,000 billion)

DigiLocker: Total number of documents stored – Over 500 million, Number of verified documents – More than 100 million

Accounts Aggregator (AA): Data sharing requests made – Over 100 million. This data highlights the deep penetration and reliance on digital mechanisms in everyday life across India.

For governmental functions and for criminal investigations Aadhaar is not available

Aadhaar plays a pivotal role in India Stack by providing a foundational identity layer. This identity verification mechanism, however, only confirms or denies a user's identity. It doesn't store or centralize transactional details, ensuring that data related to specific activities or behaviors isn't consolidated at the national level.The central government cannot use the Aadhaar central database for regular governmental activities arbitrarily. Aadhaar's primary purpose is to serve as an identification system, and its use is governed by the Aadhaar Act of 2016, which sets specific limits on the usage and sharing of data stored within the system. Here are the primary constraints and considerations:

1. Purpose Limitation: The Aadhaar Act restricts the use of Aadhaar data to specific purposes. The central and state governments can use Aadhaar for the distribution of any benefit or service that incurs expenditure from the Consolidated Fund of India. However, it cannot be used for activities outside of these specified purposes.

2. Data Privacy and Consent: Aadhaar data can't be shared without the explicit consent of the individual. The UIDAI (Unique Identification Authority of India) does not have knowledge about the purpose of authentication, ensuring transactional privacy.

3. Restrictions on Storage and Use: Entities using Aadhaar for authentication are not allowed to store the biometrics of individuals. They can only store the Aadhaar number, which further limits the possibility of misuse.

4. Limited Data Access: The Aadhaar database primarily contains demographic and biometric data. The central government does not have access to personal details beyond what's stored in the Aadhaar system.

5. No Surveillance Mechanism: The Supreme Court of India, in its landmark judgment on Aadhaar, emphasized that the Aadhaar architecture doesn't provide a mechanism for surveillance. The system's design ensures minimal data collection, and it doesn’t record the purpose of any authentication request.

It's essential to note that while Aadhaar can be a potent tool for ensuring that government benefits reach the intended recipients, its use is constrained by legal and technical safeguards to protect individual privacy and data. The government, or any entity for that matter, cannot access or use the centralized Aadhaar data beyond the purposes and manners defined by the Aadhaar Act and the guidelines issued by UIDAI.

For example, there's no blanket permission for the police or any investigative agency to access Aadhaar data for criminal investigations. In September 2018, the Supreme Court of India struck down Section 33(2) which allowed disclosure of Aadhaar information in the interest of national security without any judicial oversight. The court also emphasized the importance of individual privacy and reiterated that the Aadhaar database shouldn't turn into a tool for surveillance.

Prevention of Data Centralization is made inherent in the technology design

India Stack's design inherently guards against the centralization of data at the national level. While Aadhaar provides a unified identity verification mechanism, it doesn't store transaction-specific details. When a user performs Aadhaar-based authentication, the system verifies the identity but does not record the context or purpose of the authentication. This intentional design choice ensures that while authentication is centralized, transaction data remains decentralized, preventing the formation of a single, comprehensive profile of an individual.

Interoperability of India Stack and the magic of Protocols

Interoperability refers to the ability of different information systems, devices, or applications to connect and exchange data efficiently. In the context of India Stack, interoperability ensures seamless interaction among various digital services, such as Aadhaar authentication, eKYC, UPI, and Digilocker, among others. By providing standardized APIs, India Stack ensures that diverse software applications can easily communicate and exchange data, fostering innovation and expanding digital services' reach.

Protocols, in the digital realm, are standardized sets of rules that determine how data is transmitted and received over the network. India Stack's strength lies in its adoption of open and standardized protocols, ensuring that all digital services, regardless of their origin or nature, can integrate with the system. These protocols, besides enhancing the system's overall interoperability, also set the ground rules for security, data privacy, and user consent.

How Unified Payments Interface (UPI) works?

To illustrate what we have discussed so far let us consider one of the layer of the India Stack, that is UPI. Let us see how UPI works in practice.

As we all know from our day to day experience, UPI facilitates inter-bank transactions by instantly transferring funds between two bank accounts on a mobile platform. Here is how it goes on:

First of all, UPI allows multiple bank accounts to be linked to a single mobile application, making it possible to have seamless fund routing and merchant transactions. These transactions are processed in real time, meaning the transfer happens instantly. It operates round the clock, 24/7, every day of the year. In doing every transaction, UPI uses a Virtual Payment Address (VPA) as a unique identifier, eliminating the need to enter bank account numbers or IFSC codes for transactions. If they desire users can scan QR codes for faster and error-free transactions. Transactions are secured with a two-factor authentication but only require one click for most transactions. One more thing, and not in the least unimportant, UPI supports person-to-person (P2P) and person-to-merchant (P2M) transactions.

Almost all major banks in India support UPI, allowing their customers to use any UPI-enabled app for transactions. There is no need for Wallets. Unlike mobile wallets where you need to load money, UPI transactions are direct bank-to-bank.

UPI has been instrumental in driving digital payments in India, promoting the vision of a cashless economy. Many applications like BHIM, Google Pay, PhonePe, Paytm, and more have integrated UPI for seamless transactions.

India's Success and Challenges in Digital Public Infrastructure

The statistics clearly indicate that India has achieved remarkable success in the domain of digital public infrastructure. This infrastructure has made the lives of its citizens more convenient and secure. There are high hopes that India will continue to achieve greater milestones in this field in the future. This accomplishment is not just noteworthy within India, but also sets a global benchmark. Specifically, countries in the 'Global South' are keenly observing and may be inspired by these developments. The credit for this success goes to multiple factors, including:

Visionary leadership and foresight of the government

Active participation of the citizens

Innovations in the technology sector

Legal reforms

Implementation of security measures

However, every silver lining has a cloud. While the statistics presented are impressive, a discerning reader might notice the following concerning numbers:

Aadhaar: Unsuccessful biometric authentications – Over 100 million

Aadhaar: Biometric authentication errors – Over 100 million

The fingerprints of manual laborers often fade over time. This results in their inability to authenticate through Aadhaar, leading them to be deprived of ration and other amenities. The issue of Internet shutdowns we have already discussed above.

These challenges highlight the importance of addressing the barriers that a segment of the population faces in accessing the benefits of digital public infrastructure.

Evolving Dynamics in the Digital Economy

In the past, the emphasis was on the traditional economy. However, with the advent of the information age, the significance of knowledge-based economics has been on the rise. This shift brought forward a novel concept: Public goods, contrasting the previously dominant idea of Private goods.

Private Goods: Items that, once purchased and consumed by an individual, cannot be used by others. Examples include cars, clothes, mobile phones.

Public Goods: Items available for everyone and can be used by anyone without restriction. Examples include roads, parks, and street lighting.

The crux of the matter is that, in the digital era, the utilization of public goods and the businesses based on them, especially IT companies, have become the frontrunners, leaving traditional companies in the dust. During the dot-com era before the year 2000 and the subsequent rise of social media, these IT corporations made their public goods (services) available for free to users (i.e., customers). This was widely accepted and appreciated by the masses. The primary revenue for these companies during that time was predominantly from advertisements. But even more crucial was the accumulation of vast amounts of user data by these IT corporations. Now, this data repository has become the main asset and source of power for these companies, simultaneously becoming a primary reason for the disempowerment of the masses. It's often said that a few decades ago, oil had unparalleled significance in the economy and politics was driven by oil. Today, that place has been taken by data repositories. Consequently, the issues of privacy and data protection have become of paramount importance in today's world.

Significance of Nandan Nilekani's Initiatives

Nandan Nilekani's importance chiefly stems from the following reasons.

Firstly, he didn't just limit the 'Aadhaar' initiative to the identification of an individual or citizen. Instead, he ensured that when an identity is established, the related information remains secure with that individual, without it being transmitted elsewhere. This allowed for a massive nationwide system where the privacy of information for millions of people remains intact with the respective individuals or entities. No information was extracted in exchange for services (public goods).

Secondly, by keeping this entire operation within the public sector, the it became akin to public goods. Unlike advanced nations where IT systems are largely driven by Silicon Valley or other IT corporate hubs, this was not privatized or corporatized.

Thirdly, while the system remained a public good, he didn't exclude private companies, both domestic and international, big and small. He ensured they had a rightful place and integration within the system.

Fourthly, in terms of software development, there was an emphasis on using free and open source software (FOSS). This eliminated dependence on private institutions or corporations who could monopolize it. So the dependency was eliminated and the services (public goods) available to people became cheap.

It all started with Aadhaar.

However, this was followed by a series of other initiatives:

Aadhaar

UPI (Unified Payments Interface)

e-KYC (Electronic Know Your Customer)

DigiLocker

Data Protection (DEPA and Account Aggregator AA)

Collectively, these systems have come to be recognized as the 'India Stack'. All these systems together are termed as Digital Public Infrastructure.

The Emerging Digital Landscape and Small Enterprises

The story of Aadhaar and Digital Public Infrastructure has been told so far, but it's still ongoing. The next link in this chain is ONDC (Open Network for Digital Commerce). This platform has the capability to make big online companies like Amazon and Flipkart to make room to the local vendors and small stores in their operations. Similarly, giants like Ola and Uber would have to accommodate small taxi networks in the taxi hiring business. The era of sidelining small businesses can be checked.

Nandan Nilekani suggests that over the next five years, at least fifty countries will adopt the blueprint of India's digital experimentation. However, he is quick to emphasize that each nation must carve out its own path. Every society should derive its direction based on its experiences without sidelining its cultural and social contexts.

Globalization and Digital Evolution and Socio-Economic Disparities in India

Globalization and the digital revolution have descended upon India hand in hand. Today, they form an integral part of our lives.

However, alongside this, we notice a rise in inequalities and unemployment within the country. There's a growing concern that if this trend continues, major economic reins will end up in the hands of a few powerful corporations, leaving small traders, manufacturers, and self-employed individuals unemployed.

This fear has been palpable among certain sections of the society. A prevailing notion was that digital technology primarily benefits the elite and was designed for their gain.

From this book and the above discourse, it emerges and becomes evident that if we use this technology judiciously, molding it according to our societal needs, and integrating it seamlessly with our cultural and social environments, digital public infrastructure can prove to be a blessing. It can uplift marginalized sections and enhance the value of their work.