Lua Programming/Functions

A stack is a list of items where items can be added (pushed) or removed (popped) that behaves on the last-in-first-out principle, which means that the last item that was added will be the first to be removed. This is why such lists are called stacks: on a stack, you cannot remove an item without first removing the items that are on top of it. All operations therefore happen at the top of the stack. An item is above another if it was added after that item and is below it if it was added before that item.

An illustration of a stack and of the operations that can be performed on it.

A function (also called a subroutine, a procedure, a routine or a subprogram) is a sequence of instructions that perform a specific task and that can be called from elsewhere in the program whenever that sequence of instructions should be executed. Functions can also receive values as input and return an output after potentially manipulating the input or executing a task based on the input. Functions can be defined from anywhere in a program, including inside other functions, and they can also be called from any part of the program that has access to them: functions, just like numbers and strings, are values and can therefore be stored in variables and have all the properties that are common to variables. These characteristics make functions very useful.

Because functions can be called from other functions, the Lua interpreter (the program that reads and executes Lua code) needs to be able to know what function called the function it is currently executing so that, when the function terminates (when there is no more code to execute), it can return to execution of the right function. This is done with a stack called the call stack: each item in the call stack is a function that called the function that is directly above it in the stack, until the last item in the stack, which is the function currently being executed. When a function terminates, the interpreter uses the stack's pop operation to remove the last function in the list, and it then returns to the previous function.

There are two types of functions: built-in functions and user-defined functions. Built-in functions are functions provided with Lua and include functions such as the print function, which you already know. Some can be accessed directly, like the print function, but others need to be accessed through a library, like the math.random function, which returns a random number. User-defined functions are functions defined by the user. User-defined functions are defined using a function constructor:

local func = function(first_parameter, second_parameter, third_parameter)
	-- function body (a function's body is the code it contains)
end

The code above creates a function with three parameters and stores it in the variable func. The following code does exactly the same as the above code, but uses syntactic sugar for defining the function:

local function func(first_parameter, second_parameter, third_parameter)
	-- function body
end

It should be noted that, when using the second form, it is possible to refer to the function from inside itself, which is not possible when using the first form. This is because local function foo() end translates to local foo; foo = function() end rather than local foo = function() end. This means that foo is part of the function’s environment in the second form and not in the first, which explains why the second form makes it possible to refer to the function itself.

In both cases, it is possible to omit the local keyword to store the function in a global variable. Parameters work like variables and allow functions to receive values. When a function is called, arguments may be given to it. The function will then receive them as parameters. Parameters are like local variables defined at the beginning of a function, and will be assigned in order depending on the order of the arguments as they are given in the function call; if an argument is missing, the parameter will have the value nil. The function in the following example adds two numbers and prints the result. It would therefore print 5 when the code runs.

local function add(first_number, second_number)
	print(first_number + second_number)
end

add(2, 3)

Function calls are most of the time under the form name(arguments). However, if there is only one argument and it is either a table or a string, and it isn't in a variable (meaning it is constructed directly in the function call, expressed as a literal), the parentheses can be omitted:

print "Hello, world!"
print {4, 5}

The second line of code in the previous example would print the memory address of the table. When converting values to strings, which the print function does automatically, complex types (functions, tables, userdata and threads) are changed to their memory addresses. Booleans, numbers and the nil value, however, will be converted to corresponding strings.

The terms parameter and argument are often used interchangeably in practice. In this book, and in their proper meanings, the terms parameter and argument mean, respectively, a name to which the value of the corresponding argument will be assigned and a value that is passed to a function to be assigned to a parameter.

Returning values

Functions can receive input, manipulate it and give back output. You already know how they can receive input (parameters) and manipulate it (function body). They can also give output by returning one or many values of any type, which is done using the return statement. This is why function calls are both statements and expressions: they can be executed, but they can also be evaluated.

local function add(first_number, second_number)
	return first_number + second_number
end

print(add(5, 6))

The code in the above function will first define the function add. Then, it will call it with 5 and 6 as values. The function will add them and return the result, which will then be printed. This is why the code above would print 11. It is also possible for a function to return many values by separating the expressions that evaluate to these values with commas.

Users can define their own functions and customize them to meet their needs.

Besides taking arguments and returning values, user-defined functions can also have side effects, which are changes to variables or the program state caused by the function’s execution.

Errors

There are three types of errors: syntactic errors, static semantic errors and semantic errors. Syntactic errors happen when code is plainly invalid. The following code, for example, would be detected by Lua as invalid:

print(5 ++ 4 return)

The code above doesn't make sense; it is impossible to get a meaning out of it. Similarly, in English, "cat dog tree" is not syntactically valid because it has no meaning. It doesn't follow the rules for creating a sentence.

Static semantic errors happen when code has a meaning, but still doesn't make sense. For example, if you try adding a string with a number, you get a static semantic error because it is impossible to add a string with a number:

print("hello" + 5)

The code above follows Lua's syntactic rules, but it still doesn't make sense because it is impossible to add a string with a number (except when the string represents a number, in which case it will be coerced into one). This can be compared in English to the sentence "I are big". It follows the rules for creating sentences in English, but it still doesn't make sense because "I" is singular and "are" is plural.

Finally, semantic errors are errors that happen when the meaning of a piece of code is not what its creator thinks it is. Those are the worst errors because they can be very hard to find. Lua will always tell you when there is a syntactic error or a static semantic error (this is called throwing an error), but it cannot tell you when there is a semantic error since it doesn't know what you think the meaning of the code is. These errors happen more often than most people would think they do and finding and correcting them is something many programmers spend a lot of time doing.

The process of finding errors and correcting them is called debugging. Most of the time, programmers will spend more time finding errors than actually correcting them. This is true for all types of errors. Once you know what the problem is, it is usually simple to fix it, but sometimes, a programmer can look at a piece of code for hours without finding what is wrong in it.

Protected calls

Throwing an error is the action of indicating, whether it is done manually or automatically by the interpreter (the program that reads the code and executes it), that something is wrong with the code. It is done automatically by Lua when the code given is invalid, but it can be done manually with the error function:

local variable = 500
if variable % 5 ~= 0 then
	error("It must be possible to divide the value of the variable by 5 without obtaining a decimal number.")
end

The error function also has a second argument, which indicates the stack level at which the error should be thrown, but this will not be covered in this book. The assert function does the same thing as the error function, but it will only throw an error if its first argument evaluates to nil or false and it doesn't have an argument that can be used to specify the stack level at which the error should be thrown. The assert function is useful at the start of a script, for example, to check if a library that is required for the script to work is available.

It may be hard to understand why one would desire to voluntarily throw an error, since the code in a program stops running whenever an error is thrown, but, often, throwing errors when functions are used incorrectly or when a program is not running in the right environment can be helpful to help the person who will have to debug the code to find it immediately without having to stare at the code for a long time without realizing what is wrong.

Sometimes, it can be useful to prevent an error from stopping the code and instead do something like displaying an error message to the user so he can report the bug to the developer. This is called exception handling (or error handling) and is done by catching the error to prevent its propagation and running an exception handler to handle it. The way it is done in different programming languages varies a lot. In Lua, it is done using protected calls. They are called protected calls because a function called in protected mode will not stop the program if an error happens. There are two functions that can be used to call a function in protected mode:

Function	Description
pcall(function, ...)	Calls the function in protected mode and returns a status code (a boolean value whose value depends on if an error was thrown or not) and the values returned by the function, or the error message if the function was stopped by an error. Arguments can be given to the function by passing them to the pcall function after the first argument, which is the function that should be called in protected mode.
xpcall(function, handler, ...)	Does the same thing as pcall, but, when the function errors, instead of returning the same values as those pcall would return, it calls the handler function with them as parameters. The handler function can then be used, for example, to display an error message. As for the pcall function, arguments can be passed to the function by being given to the xpcall function.

Stack overflow

The call stack, the stack that contains all the functions that were called in the order in which they were called, was mentioned earlier. That call stack in most languages, including Lua, has a maximum size. This maximum size is so big that it should not be worried about in most cases, but functions that call themselves (this is called recursivity and such functions are called recursive functions) can reach this limit if there is nothing to prevent them from calling themselves over and over indefinitely. This is called a stack overflow. When the stack overflows, the code stops running and an error is thrown.

Variadic functions

Variadic functions, which are also called vararg functions, are functions that accept a variable number of arguments. A variadic function is indicated by three dots ("...") at the end of its parameter list. Arguments that do not fit in the parameters in the parameter list, instead of being discarded, are then made available to the function through a vararg expression, which is also indicated by three dots. The value of a vararg expression is a list of values (not a table) which can then be put in a table to be manipulated with more ease with the following expression: {...}. In Lua 5.0, instead of being available through a vararg expression, the extra arguments were available in a special parameter called "arg". The following function is an example of a function that would add the first argument to all the arguments it receives, then add all of them together and print the result:

function add_one(increment, ...)
	local result = 0
	for _, number in next, {...} do
		result = result + number + increment
	end
end

It is not necessary to understand the code above as it is only a demonstration of a variadic function.

The select function is useful to manipulate argument lists without needing to use tables. It is itself a variadic function, as it accepts an indefinite number of arguments. It returns all arguments after the argument with the number given as its first argument (if the number given is negative, it indexes starting from the end, meaning -1 is the last argument). It will also return the number of arguments it received, excluding the first one, if the first argument is the string "#". It can be useful to discard all arguments in an argument list before a certain number, and, more originally, to distinguish between nil values being sent as arguments and nothing being sent as an argument. Indeed, select will distinguish, when "#" is given as its first argument, nil values from no value. Argument lists (and return lists as well) are instances of tuples, which will be explored in the chapter about tables; the select function works with all tuples.

print((function(...) return select('#', ...) == 1 and "nil" or "no value" end)()) --> no value
print((function(...) return select('#', ...) == 1 and "nil" or "no value" end)(nil)) --> nil
print((function(...) return select('#', ...) == 1 and "nil" or "no value" end)(variable_that_is_not_defined)) --> nil

-- As this code shows, the function is able to detect whether the value nil was passed as an argument or whether there was simply no value passed.
-- In normal circumstances, both are considered as nil, and this is the only way to distinguish them.