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Lentis/Caffeine Addiction

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The latest reviewed version was checked on 10 December 2024. There are 4 pending changes awaiting review.

Introduction

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Caffeine, chemically known as 1,3,7 Trimethylxanthine, is a bitter substance that occurs naturally in plants such as coffee beans and tea leaves and is synthetically made for use in medicines, foods, and drinks[1]. Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant, giving humans energy and a feeling of wakefulness. Its addictive nature has not been deeply researched, but it has been shown to cause health issues like increased release of acid in the stomach, causing heartburn and an upset stomach, often causing an increase in blood pressure[2].

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration considers 400 milligrams, or around 4 cups of coffee, a safe maximum amount of caffeine for healthy adults to drink daily. In moderation, drinking coffee can positively impact the health of adults by decreasing chances of heart disease, stroke, and diabetes, specifically in women, and also help prevent heart failure[3]. Caffeine has been associated with reducing weight gain and promoting weight loss[4]. Many of these studies and claims do have undeniable connections to the industry they support which makes their legitimacy questionable.

Caffeine has a rich history and has helped to shape many aspects of culture. Caffeine's widespread use and addictive nature make for a lucrative industry that often does not prioritize the safety of the consumer or the well-being of the workers who produce it.

Caffeine Addiction

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Caffeine addiction is clinically known as "caffeine use disorder" in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)[5]. The World Health Organization also considers it a substance use disorder and describes clinical conditions related to the overuse of caffeine in its International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11)[6]. It is currently labeled as a Condition for Further Study because there is a lack of data on the prevalence and clinical significance of this disorder among the general population[7]. Currently, there are no criteria for the amount of caffeine consumption that is required to be considered an addiction. Instead, it depends on the subjective symptoms and psychological effect caffeine has on the user. The DSM-5 describes these effects as the problematic use of caffeine resulting in clinically significant impairment or distress. These impairments include unsuccessful attempts to control caffeine use, continued use despite obvious adverse side effects, and withdrawal[5].

Caffeine's Effects

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The widespread use of caffeine is no surprise as it produces remarkable, desirable effects in its consumers. Caffeine reduces sleepiness as a result of its specific molecular structure. It is absorbed through the small intestine and, being water and fat-soluble, dissolves into the bloodstream and crosses the blood-brain barrier to enter the brain. Caffeine’s structure resembles adenosine, a naturally occurring hormone that communicates tiredness to the brain. Caffeine's structural similarity enables it to bind to the brain's adenosine receptors, blocking their ability to detect adenosine and thereby preventing the usual sensation of tiredness associated with these receptors[8]. Caffeine also inhibits the phosphodiesterase enzyme in skeletal muscle and adipose tissues. This stimulates the heart which then increases coronary blood flow[9]. The phosphodiesterase inhibition and effects on adenosine receptors are credited with causing the significant physical and psychological impacts of caffeine. Regular consumption of caffeine causes tolerance and dependence[10]. Tolerance occurs when the brain responds to the repeated blocking of adenosine by growing more receptors[11]. Naturally, after this adaption, the brain requires increased dosing of caffeine to achieve the same effects, which can lead to caffeine intoxication, restlessness, nervousness, insomnia, irregular heartbeat, and gastrointestinal distress[12].

The environment can make it natural to develop this tolerance and dependence. For example, in an academic setting, many college-age students tend to increase their caffeine intake as academic demands grow[13]. Habitual consumption is normalized by the culture of drinking coffee on college campuses with the social aspect of coffee shops being used as study spots. Poor sleep practices also lead to a perceived need for caffeine. These habits carry on into adulthood with people consuming caffeine in the morning to increase alertness and boost mood to find motivation to work. Over 90% of adults regularly drink caffeine in the US, consuming an average of 200 mg of caffeine per day.

Once a habit of caffeine consumption forms and dependency develops, withdrawal symptoms are likely for anyone trying to quit. Caffeine withdrawal causes many adverse effects including headaches, irritability, fatigue, anxiety, tremors, depression, and other flu-like symptoms[8]. These symptoms begin 12 to 24 hours after stopping caffeine consumption. Withdrawal symptoms peak between 20 to 51 hours after stopping consumption, and last for 2 to 9 days[7]. These withdrawal symptoms make it unlikely for routine caffeine consumers to stop even if the habit becomes more costly.

Healthy Dosage

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Healthy daily dosage of caffeine is a point of some controversy. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) takes the stance that children and teens should not be consuming the amounts of caffeine present in energy drinks and recommends no more than 100 mg per day[14][15]. Despite this, some energy drink companies disregard these recommendations by targeting young consumers with highly caffeinated drinks. The Food and Drug Administration cites the AAP on this fact yet only regulates caffeinated products to the degree of requiring labels and issuing the suggestion for adults to have no more than 400 mg per day[16]. Researchers from the Department of Medical Ethics and Health Policy state that the regulation of caffeinated products is incoherent and does not protect consumers. They reference the fact that consumers with certain health conditions need to know how much caffeine they are consuming but labeling regulations are not satisfying this need[17]. This observation aligns with a problematic "charged lemonade" product line from the company Panera Bread. Two lawsuits claimed this product caused the deaths of two individuals who were not aware of the significant amounts of caffeine in the beverage. Panera removed the products from the menu and settled with the first plaintiff[18][19]. Studies have shown that common highly caffeinated energy drinks have no therapeutic benefits and contain ingredients that are understudied and unregulated[20]. In contrast, Celsius Holdings funded a study at the University of Oklahoma that concluded: "consuming Celsius prior to regular exercise in previously sedentary, overweight men may yield more significant body composition and cardiorespiratory improvements than exercise alone"[21]. Studies like these demonstrate the costly efforts of companies to increase the consumption of their products and the conflicts of interest surrounding current academic caffeine research.

History of Caffeine

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Why has caffeine become such an integral part of modern society, driving its immense popularity and, for some, fostering addiction? To understand its pervasive influence today, we must first understand its origins and historical journey. While the exact origins of caffeine are unknown, numerous legends trace its discovery to natural sources such as coffee, cocoa, and tea.

Firstly, dating back to 2437 BCE, an ancient Chinese legend proposes that the first use of caffeine was by Emperor Shen Nung when the wind accidentally blew leaves into his boiling water. The concoction’s pleasant taste and restorative properties established the drink as the first cup of tea[22]. Tea's discovery became deeply ingrained in Chinese culture, initially valued for its medicinal properties and later embraced as a symbol of harmony and spiritual balance during the Tang Dynasty. Its significance grew through trade and rituals, solidifying tea as both a cultural cornerstone and an economic driver in China. Coffee dates back to another legend from the native tribes of the Ethiopian Peninsula in the 9th century CE. When a herder noticed how jumpy and alert his goats were after consuming the berries of an arabica plant, he gave the berries to a local monk. The monk experimented with the beans, eventually creating the first cup of coffee. Its stimulating effects made it a popular aid during prayer and religious activities[23]. Coffee was widely popular across the Middle East and Europe by the 17th century, where it was consumed in coffee houses that quickly became hubs of social activity, entertainment, and information exchange[23]. Cocoa is another rendition of early caffeine, native to Mesoamerica, home of the cocoa tree. Revered by the Mayans and Aztecs as the "drink of the gods," cocoa was consumed in ceremonial rituals, often mixed with spices to create a bitter, frothy beverage believed to bestow energy and divine connection. Beyond its sacred role, cocoa beans were also used as currency, underscoring their value in society[24]. When Spanish explorers brought cocoa to Europe, it became a luxury item for the elite, eventually evolving into sweetened chocolate drinks and confections we enjoy today.

 
This image depicts Jonathan's Coffee House, a London coffee house that opened in 1680 and became the original site of the London Stock Exchange.

The energizing and stimulating effects of caffeine transformed civilizations and altered the course of history. Caffeine has contributed to times of the Golden Ages and Enlightenment, the industrial revolution, capitalism, and even democracy[25].

Before caffeine in hot coffee and tea, individuals turned to fermented drinks like beer and hard cider to avoid the risk of microbial infection from contaminated water[26]. Alcohol was consumed daily, fogging the minds of workers and contributing to hazardous workplaces. Caffeinated beverages, made with boiled water that ensured safety, offered an energizing alternative to contaminated water and intoxicating alcohol, fostering productivity and sharper focus[25]. This shift was particularly evident during the Prohibition Era, when the ban on alcohol in the United States led to a surge in the popularity of coffee and tea as socially acceptable alternatives, fostering sober spaces for work and socialization.

Caffeine’s considerable impact on the rise of capitalism was initially due to the expansion of global trade. When caffeine in coffee, tea, and chocolate became beloved in 17th-century Europe, the market for these products exploded, and countries flocked to become superpowers in their production and sales[27]. Caffeine’s stimulatory effects meant that workers could work at all times of the day despite the body’s natural rhythms. Caffeine's integration into daily life during the Industrial Revolution fostered habits of heavy reliance, a pattern that persists today as caffeine fuels modern productivity and social interaction. The coffee houses that quickly rose in popularity became sites of shared interest in topics such as science, politics, and literature. They were spaces where men of all classes could mix, spreading democratic and liberal ideals. As a hub of people and ideas, they eventually brought forth important capitalist institutions like the London Stock Exchange[27].

Caffeine's journey through history has also cemented it as a symbol of both power and resistance. During British imperialism, tea became a cornerstone of the empire’s global trade, driven by the East India Company, which established monopolies over tea production and export. The control of caffeine-rich products like tea became so significant that it influenced major geopolitical events, such as the Opium Wars, which reshaped trade relations between Britain and China.[28] Similarly, caffeine played a pivotal role in the American Revolution through the Boston Tea Party, where colonists used tea as a symbol of defiance against British taxation. This act of rebellion not only underscored the cultural and economic significance of caffeine-rich products but also marked a turning point in history, paving the way for the birth of a new nation that would later embrace caffeine as a cornerstone of daily life.

As caffeine spread across the world, it became more than a commodity; it became a cultural necessity, deeply embedded in daily rituals and social structures. This dependence has only grown over time, transforming into a modern phenomenon where caffeine is not just a staple of productivity but also a widespread addiction. From its imperial roots to today’s global markets, caffeine’s story reflects how a simple stimulant has shaped economies, cultures, and lifestyles. Now the most widely used psychoactive drug, caffeine is consumed by nearly 90% of adults, reflecting its deep-rooted daily significance. Yet, as caffeine continues to fuel modern productivity and culture, its ubiquity raises critical questions about safety, moderation, and our collective dependence on such a powerful stimulant.[29]

Culture of Drinking Coffee

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Originating in Ethiopia and expanding towards religious ritual use in Yemen, the culture of drinking coffee has spread all over the world, influencing traditional tea-drinking countries to become obsessed as well. Besides the chemical effects of drinking coffee on the body, coffee houses have grown in popularity due to their use as meeting places for businessmen in European countries in the 18th century and beyond[30]. Cafes became popular in Europe due to their significance in the social sphere and ease of convenience. The small selections of coffee and affordable prices allowed people of all social classes to enjoy the sanctuary of coffeehouses. The working class was able to enjoy the community and exchange ideas and philosophies with one another with comfort.

Beyond allowing working-class men to exchange ideas, coffeehouses also provided the public with the unification of the community. As the shift from regular coffee to specialty coffee drinks increased, chains like Starbucks and Tim Hortons became popular. The public enjoyed both the convenience and affordability of these fancy drinks, leading businessmen, students, and the general public to find appeal in these coffeehouses. The culture of drinking coffee has become more than enjoying the alertness that comes from it– it has become a social phenomenon[31].

The Rise of Energy Drinks in Youth Culture

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The launch of Red Bull in 1987 marked the beginning of a new era for caffeine and ever since energy drinks have become a massive part of youth culture. It was the marketing strategy of corporations behind these drinks that has undeniably targeted youth across the world. Energy drinks have been promoted heavily through extreme sporting events and athlete partnerships. The branding of the drinks is flashy, which combined with the association with extreme sports, leads them to be linked to adventure, risk-taking, and adrenaline-filled lifestyles. By the 90s and the early 2000s, companies expanded their marketing to gaming culture and the music industry. This strategy succeeded tremendously in appealing to young populations, with the English youth now consuming more energy drinks than the whole rest of Europe combined[32]. These drinks simultaneously became linked to nightlife and partying. The association of Red Bull with vodka cocktails, for example, extended their presence into social scenes. This trend catered to college students and young professionals looking to balance work and play. The effectiveness is evident; by 2011, 35% of eighth graders consumed energy drinks, with 18% drinking more than one daily[33]. Sales of these drinks have also increased by 73% from 2018 to 2023[34].

A concerning aspect of this targeted marketing is its potential to establish lifelong customers by introducing caffeine, an addictive substance, to younger audiences. Energy drink companies appear to be employing tactics reminiscent of cigarette and e-cigarette companies, which historically targeted youth to secure a steady consumer base[35]. Cigarette advertisements once glamorized smoking through associations with rebellion, sophistication, and athleticism—qualities that appealed to impressionable audiences[36]. Similarly, e-cigarette companies have been criticized for their colorful packaging, sweet flavors, and influencer partnerships, all aimed at attracting younger demographics[37]. Energy drink corporations leverage caffeine’s addictive qualities alongside marketing that taps into youthful aspirations of independence, thrill-seeking, and social belonging. By fostering early dependence on these drinks, companies not only ensure immediate sales but also create consumers who are more likely to maintain the habit well into adulthood.

The consumption of energy drinks, especially at young ages, has sparked significant health concerns as well. Studies have linked them to heart palpitations, anxiety, and sleep disturbances[38]. Some governments, like those in Norway, Latvia, and Lithuania have even banned the sale of energy drinks to children,[39][40] highlighting the tension between marketing and public health. The industry has now begun diversifying in response, targeting even more niche demographics. Products like sugar-free options, organic energy drinks, and caffeinated waters have emerged to appeal to health-conscious younger consumers while retaining their cultural cachet.

The Economics of Coffee and Caffeine

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Coffee is one of the most traded commodities globally, underpinning the livelihoods of over 20 million smallholder farmers in developing nations such as Brazil, Vietnam, and Ethiopia[41]​​. Despite coffee’s pervasive presence in consumer culture, the economic dynamics of its production and distribution reveal stark inequalities.

At the heart of these inequities lies the role of middlemen, or "coyotes" as they are referred to by Latin American coffee growers, who purchase green coffee from small farmers[42]. These intermediaries provide a necessary function by aggregating small-scale crops into quantities large enough for export, but their practices often exploit the farmers’ vulnerabilities. Operating in regions where farmers lack direct access to international markets, coyotes frequently underpay for crops, offering prices as low as $0.38 per pound—well below the fair trade benchmark of $0.89 per pound​​[43].

Efforts to circumvent these intermediaries have emerged through the establishment of farmer cooperatives. Organizations such as Equal Exchange have facilitated direct trade relationships between these cooperatives and international distributors, guaranteeing higher, more stable prices[44]. By pooling resources and cooperatively negotiating better terms, organic coffee under fair trade agreements can fetch up to $1.11 per pound[43]​.

Still, challenges persist. Roasters and retailers in industrialized nations often see the highest profit margins while farmers at the other end of the supply chain struggle with volatile prices, difficult working conditions, and environmental risks such as climate change and soil degradation[45]​​. Certifications like Fair Trade and initiatives promoting sustainable shade-grown coffee have attempted to address these challenges, but critics argue they inadequately address the structural power imbalances entrenched in the commodity chain​.

Consumer behavior plays a pivotal role in reshaping the coffee economy. One striking feature of coffee demand is its extremely low price elasticity, an economic measure of how sensitive consumer demand is to changes in price. Studies indicate that even substantial price increases have little effect on the quantity of coffee consumed[46]. This inelastic demand underscores coffee’s central role in daily routines and the physiological dependence many consumers develop due to caffeine’s addictive properties. The low price elasticity of coffee amplifies its economic impact in several ways. For producers and retailers, it ensures a steady market that is resilient to global supply shocks or rising production costs. But it also exacerbates inequalities along the supply chain. While multinational corporations and retailers capitalize on inelastic demand to sustain profits, smallholder farmers rarely benefit from this stability. The prices they receive are tied to volatile global commodity markets rather than the robust retail pricing that coffee’s addictive demand supports.

The rise of specialty coffee and ethically sourced beans highlights the potential for consumer awareness to challenge this dynamic. Although specialty coffee often comes at a premium price, its popularity has grown in recent years. This shift has bolstered sustainable practices and provided opportunities for farmer cooperatives to capture more value. Still, the structural power imbalances in the commodity chain persist, with inelastic demand largely benefiting downstream players such as roasters and retailers.

Coffee’s journey from farm to cup illustrates the interdependence of local producers and global markets. While the beverage is often celebrated as a cultural and economic staple, its production reflects a history of inequality and a modern reality of competing interests. From rural farms in Latin America, Africa, and Southeast Asia to urban cafés around the world, the economics of coffee reveals both the opportunities for income generation and cultural exchange and the persistent vulnerabilities of smallholder farmers, who remain exposed to systemic exploitation and environmental challenges.

Conclusion

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Caffeine addiction represents a complex and understudied phenomenon that has profound implications for individual health and societal behavior. While not yet fully recognized as a clinical disorder, caffeine use disorder's acknowledgment in medical manuals highlights the growing awareness of its potential psychological and physiological impacts. The pervasive nature of caffeine consumption underscores how deeply ingrained the substance has become in modern culture. The addictive cycle is perpetuated by both physiological mechanisms, such as the brain's adaptation to adenosine receptor blocking, and environmental factors like academic and professional settings that normalize and even encourage high caffeine intake. Withdrawal symptoms, ranging from headaches and irritability to depression and fatigue, make it challenging for habitual consumers to quit, further entrenching caffeine's grip on individuals. As caffeine continues to be marketed aggressively, particularly to younger demographics, understanding and addressing its addictive potential becomes increasingly crucial for public health and individual well-being.

References

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  1. ↑ https://medlineplus.gov/caffeine.html
  2. ↑ https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/caffeine/
  3. ↑ https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/9-reasons-why-the-right-amount-of-coffee-is-good-for-you
  4. ↑ https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/285194#benefits
  5. ↑ a b American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Caffeine-Related Disorders. In Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.
  6. ↑ World Health Orginization (2021). "International Classification of Diseases, Eleventh Revision".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  7. ↑ a b https://www.theravive.com/therapedia/caffeine-use-disorder-dsm--5#:~:text=Caffeine%20Use%20Disorder%20is%20not,2013
  8. ↑ a b https://www.addictioncenter.com/stimulants/caffeine/#:~:text=People%20can%20develop%20a%20dependence,to%20other%20drugs%20or%20alcohol.
  9. ↑ Research, Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Military Nutrition (2001), "Pharmacology of Caffeine", Caffeine for the Sustainment of Mental Task Performance: Formulations for Military Operations, National Academies Press (US), retrieved 2024-12-08
  10. ↑ Sajadi-Ernazarova KR, Anderson J, Dhakal A, et al. Caffeine Withdrawal. [Updated 2022 Sep 18]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430790/
  11. ↑ Boulenger, J. P.; Patel, J.; Post, R. M.; Parma, A. M.; Marangos, P. J. (1983-03-07). "Chronic caffeine consumption increases the number of brain adenosine receptors". Life Sciences. 32 (10): 1135–1142. doi:10.1016/0024-3205(83)90119-4. ISSN 0024-3205. PMID 6298543.
  12. ↑ https://www.kuakini.org/wps/portal/public/Health-Wellness/Health-Info-Tips/Miscellaneous/Caffeine--America-s-Most-Popular-Drug
  13. ↑ https://coffeeaffection.com/college-students-and-coffee-statistics/
  14. ↑ Schering, Steve; Writer, Staff (2023-12-01). "Children should avoid drinks with sugar, caffeine". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  15. ↑ Schneider, Marcie Beth; Benjamin, Holly J.; Committee on Nutrition and the Council on Sports Medicine and Fitness (2011-06-01). "Sports Drinks and Energy Drinks for Children and Adolescents: Are They Appropriate?". Pediatrics. 127 (6): 1182–1189. doi:10.1542/peds.2011-0965. ISSN 0031-4005.
  16. ↑ Commissioner, Office of the (2024-08-29). "Spilling the Beans: How Much Caffeine is Too Much?". FDA.
  17. ↑ Kole, Jon (2013). "Caffeine Content Labeling: A Missed Opportunity for Promoting Personal and Public Health". Journal of Caffeine Research. 3.
  18. ↑ "Panera to stop selling Charged Lemonade following lawsuits". Center for Science in the Public Interest. Retrieved 2024-12-10.
  19. ↑ "Panera settles with first plaintiff in Charged Lemonade wrongful death suits". NBC News. 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-12-10.
  20. ↑ Seifert, Sara (2011). "Health Effects of Energy Drinks on Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults". Official Journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics. 127 (3).
  21. ↑ Lockwood, Christopher (2009). "Sedentary Men and Activity Endurance Clinical Study" (PDF). University of Oklahoma.
  22. ↑ Jane Reynolds; Phil Gates; Gaden Robinson (1994). 365 Days of Nature and Discovery. New York: Harry N. Adams. p. 44.
  23. ↑ a b https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2020/08/author-michael-pollan-discusses-how-caffeine-changed-the-world/
  24. ↑ "History of Chocolate: Cocoa Beans & Xocolatl". HISTORY. 2022-08-10. Retrieved 2024-12-10.
  25. ↑ a b https://dr-younes-henni.medium.com/how-caffeine-addiction-changed-history-9fadf60427eb
  26. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WD6cYabx0nk
  27. ↑ a b https://www.socialistparty.org.uk/articles/33123/06-10-2021/caffeine-and-capitalism-a-symbiotic-relationship/
  28. ↑ "First China War | National Army Museum". www.nam.ac.uk. Retrieved 2024-12-10.
  29. ↑ https://foodinsight.org/caffeine-consumer-consumption-habits-and-safety-perceptions/#:~:text=Three%20in%20four%20(75%25),what%20the%20safe%20amount%20is
  30. ↑ https://www.bbc.com/future/bespoke/made-on-earth/how-the-world-came-to-run-on-coffee/
  31. ↑ https://www.coffeeordie.com/coffee-house-cafe-culture
  32. ↑ "What happened to the energy drinks ban? | Sustain". www.sustainweb.org. Retrieved 2024-12-08.
  33. ↑ U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation. (July 31 2013). Energy drinks: Exploring concerns about marketing to youth. Government Printing Office: Hearing before the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, United States Senate, 113th Congress, 1st session. U.S. Government Printing Office. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  34. ↑ MD, Keren Landman (2024-07-17). "Energy drinks are everywhere. How dangerous are they?". Vox. Retrieved 2024-12-09.
  35. ↑ CDC (2024-10-17). "E-Cigarette Use Among Youth". Smoking and Tobacco Use. Retrieved 2024-12-09.
  36. ↑ "The Role of the Media in Promoting and Reducing Tobacco Use | Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences (DCCPS)". cancercontrol.cancer.gov. Retrieved 2024-12-09.
  37. ↑ Padon, Alisa A.; Maloney, Erin K.; Cappella, Joseph N. (2017-01). "Youth-Targeted E-cigarette Marketing in the US". Tobacco Regulatory Science. 3 (1): 95–101. doi:10.18001/TRS.3.1.9. ISSN 2333-9748. PMC 5221880. PMID 28083545. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  38. ↑ Marshall, Mallika; MD (2024-01-18). "How harmful can energy drinks be for children and teens? - CBS Boston". www.cbsnews.com. Retrieved 2024-12-09.
  39. ↑ Wenande, Christian (2023-05-26). "Politicians eyeing possible ban of energy drinks for kids". The Copenhagen Post. Retrieved 2024-12-09.
  40. ↑ "Pressure mounts across Europe to ban energy drink sales to children". BeverageDaily.com. 2024-11-28. Retrieved 2024-12-09.
  41. ↑ Vega, Fernando E.; Rosenquist, Eric; Collins, Wanda (2003-09). "Global project needed to tackle coffee crisis". Nature. 425 (6956): 343–343. doi:10.1038/425343a. ISSN 1476-4687. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  42. ↑ "WHAT IS FAIR TRADE COFFEE?". Fair Trade Coffee Company. Retrieved 2024-12-09.
  43. ↑ a b Méndez, V. Ernesto; Bacon, Christopher M.; Olson, Meryl; Petchers, Seth; Herrador, Doribel; Carranza, Cecilia; Trujillo, Laura; Guadarrama-Zugasti, Carlos; Cordón, Antonio; Mendoza, Angel (2010-09). "Effects of Fair Trade and organic certifications on small-scale coffee farmer households in Central America and Mexico". Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems. 25 (3): 236–251. doi:10.1017/S1742170510000268. ISSN 1742-1705. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  44. ↑ "The History of Equal Exchange". Equal Exchange Resource Center. Retrieved 2024-12-09.
  45. ↑ Bilen, Christine; El Chami, Daniel; Mereu, Valentina; Trabucco, Antonio; Marras, Serena; Spano, Donatella (2022-12-25). "A Systematic Review on the Impacts of Climate Change on Coffee Agrosystems". Plants. 12 (1): 102. doi:10.3390/plants12010102. ISSN 2223-7747. PMC 9824350. PMID 36616231.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  46. ↑ Vochozka, Marek; Petrách, Filip; Janek, Svatopluk (2022). "Changes in perception of coffee in EU: Luxury good becoming inferior good". Economics & Sociology. 15 (3): 248–267. doi:10.14254/2071-789X.2022/15-3/14. ISSN 2306-3459.
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