Peasants under the rule of the Manchu Dynasty were poor, worked on land, lived a hard life, and paid all the taxes.
Their population grew by 8% but the land cultivated increased only by 1% in the second half of the 19th century, and this imbalance caused famines.
Peasants, often driven to the cities by their poverty, had to pay up to 80% of their harvest to landlords, and usually struggled with unemployment and debt due to cheap Western technology.
Political weakness and the influence of foreign powersEdit
China's destabilised economy was exploited and humiliated through Western imperialism after the mid 19th century Opium Wars and the great Chinese empire had been "carved up into spheres of influence."
China had been forced to sign unequal treaties, maintain extra-territorial courts for foreigners who disobeyed Chinese laws, saw inflation, corruption, and financial chaos from imperialist powers.
Large portions of the tax revenue did not reach the central government as provisional governments were corrupt.
In 1864, the first political reform and religious movement was shut down after the regional armies killed millions of Chinese rebellions.
Even the Chinese educated and elite in the Self-Strengthening Movement were divided on how to modernise China.
China had lost the war with Japan in 1895, and lost land to Japan in the Russo-Japanese settlement in 1904−5).
There was a widespread and popular anti-Western feeling, which started the Boxer Rebellion in 1899, but without modern weaponry, any anti-foreign revolt was futile.
Chinese government felt increased tension when the death of the Emperor and succession of two year old Pu Yi in 1908, alongside the ever-growing sensation of imminent 'Westerinisation.'
Prince Chun ruled in regent, his incompetence saw the dismissal of Jiang Jieshi, and he increased taxation, contributing to socio-economic downturn.
In 1911, the dynasty was overthrown in a revolution known as the Double Tenth and a republic was created.
Dr Sun Yixan, who had been in exile in the USA during the revolution, was to become the first president of the new republic in Nanjing.
In an attempt to over-throw the rebellion, the imperial government tried to use the Northern Army general, Yuan Shikai, only to be double-crossed. In February 1912, Pu Yi was abdicated.
Despite this revolution, there was no establishment of democracy and former imperial officers held their positions.
Historian Michael Lynch argues that the revolution was essentially a revolt by the provinces against the center government; "a triumph for regionalism."
Led by students in 1919, and in response to the Treaty of Versailles, a mass demonstration was held in Beijing, against the warlords, traditional culture, and the Japanese.
China had joined the Allies in a "rebirth" as an independent nation inspired by the Bolshevik revolution in 1917.
Imperialism was perceived as the main cause for China's problem.
China's GMD party had grown stronger during the warlord period.
Attempt to unify China: the First United FrontEdit
Both the GMD and the CCP wanted a unified China and took up a united front to fight the warlords in 1923.
Sun Yixan's third principle, 'the People's Livelihood,' otherwise known as socialism, convinced Cominterm that this front could be trusted.
Though he had been educated in Moscow, and found funding from the USSR to train GMD officers, Jiang became increasingly anti-Communist which nearly broke the front.
The GMD and the CCP went on a Northern Expedition (1926−8) to crush the warlords, which was a success.
The GMD announced it was a legitimate government and situated the new capital in Nanjing.
Immediate causes of the Chinese Civil War: the GMD attacks on the CCPEdit
The tension between the GMD and the CCP was the last of the tension in China and their alliance was of convenience.
Their success was as a result of the CCP promise of land to the peasants and GMD ambitions.
Jiang was sympathetic to the landlords and middle classes but began to expel all communists from the GMD due to communist support.
The 'White Terror' in April 1927 was Jiang's peak attack. Jiang turned the powerful 'workers' party army' under Zhou ENlai against the CCP, 5,000 communists were shot.
Jiang's 'purification movement' killed around 250,000 people, including communists, trade unionists, and peasant leaders.
The CCP retreated to Jiangxi, which became known as Jiangxi Soviet.
Mao Zedong's writing suggests that the White Terror was proof that the United Front ultimately doomed.
Mao also believed that the GMD and Cominterm had the wrong strategy for China; it should be peasant based.
Mao said "The peasants are the sea; we are the fish. The sea is our habitat," which shifted the ideological orthodox interpretation of Marxism to Maoism.
His tangent ideology was successful with the results of recruitment found in the Jiangxi Soviet.
Between 1928 to 1934, Jiang failed to carry out Sun's Three Principles and his support (the rich and landlords) were of no help to his ineffective government.
In 1931, the Japanese invaded Manchuria.
Still trying to destroy the Communists, Jiang initiated the 'Five Encirclement Campaigns;' circling the reds, cutting off supplies and resources.
Mao's strategy, in a letter to Lisan in 1921 was: 'The enemy advances, we retreat; the enemy halts, we harass; the enemy tires, we attack; the enemy retreats; we pursue.'
After Lisan, he was replaced with 28 Moscow graduates known as the 28 Bolsheviks with the influence of Cominterm.
Mao did not like these "inexperienced men."
The first 3 campaigns were between December 1930 to September 1931 who were all defeated under Zhou Enlai.
The CCP's knowledge of the area and support of local peasants helped.
Zhu De was involved in the fourth encirclement campaign, using the same tactics forcing back the GMD in 1933.
Mao organized 'hit and runs' as there was good knowledge of terrain and support from locals.
GMD tried to hunt down CCP, drawing them to hostile areas, but guerrilla tactics usually prevailed.
Enemy became demoralised and word down and any attempt to destroy CCP (looting villages/massive attacks/etc) only increased hostility and improved CCP status.
Guerillas joined together to form convention army in the 'open or mobile phase'.
CCP in last stage of guerilla warfare when second civil war broke out (1946).
When the CCP were in power, consolidation occurred; removing remnants of the 'old regime.'
End of the first stage of the Chinese Civil War – the Second United Front (1937)Edit
Long March essential for Mao to become unchallenged leader even though Jiang Jieshi still determined to defeat CCP.
China was invaded in 1931 by Japan (Jieshi made this deal), taking over Manchuria.
Jieshi appealed to League of Nations, as CCP was a greater threat; called the Japanese "a disease of the skin while communists were a disease of the heart."
Jieshi attempted to resist Japanese in Shanghai 1932, truced later. This led to an anti-Japanese sentiment.
Mao called for another 'United Front' to fight Japanese; all agreed including northern warlords.
It was the Comintern and not Mao who ended up pushing the alliance between CCP and GMD as Stalin was worried about Japanese expansion.
1936, Jieshi was the only leader in China who could effectively fight them.
Jieshi was kidnapped by warlords, and was released on Cominterm orders after 13 days, forcing the front.
Why was the CCP able to survive the first stage of the Chinese Civil War?Edit
Long March ensured CCP survival with a defensible base in Yan'an; propaganda victory for CCP; won support for claim to fight Japanese.
Mao became leader who consolidated the group of revolutionaries.
Mao offered to join a front with GMD won him popularity.
GMD's decision to deal with Japanese after CCP lost support.
Poor treatment of peasants by GMD degraded their popularity.
GMD gambled on USA defeating Japan, sending best troops to Yan'an, demoralising the army.
Jieshi lost tax revenue as Japan occupied land; he printed more money causing high levels of inflation, hurting the middle class - the natural GMD supporters.
Corrupt GMD army, low moral, ill treatment, and conscription that alienated peasants.
Japanese control ports and key land routes; limited supplies despite American aid.
Military failures, internal faction, and inflation caused discontent - Jieshi simply increased repression.
GMD only controlled territory around the capital and areas in the south.
CCP had light losses with guerrilla tactics, the GMD bore the brunt of Japanese attacks and had been damanged physically and psychologically.
GMD lost support for 'sitting back' and waiting for the Americans to win the war.
Mao: "our fixed policy should be 70% expansion, 20% dealing with the GMD and 10% resisting the Japanese."
March 1945, communists had liberated 678/914 country towns, introducing: land reform; village schools/soviets; reducing taxes; abolishing debt.
James Sheridan: the reason CCP achieved enthusiastic backing of peasants was "by meeting the local, immediate needs of the peasants through reformist and radical social polices by providing leadership for the defence of peasant communities against the Japanese. In this fashion the communist won peasant confidence and the process began the transformation - the modernisation - of rural China."
Women treated as equals for first time in Chinese history.
CCP gained support as egalitarians.
During Yan'an blockade in 1939, CCP became self-sufficient; taxing goods and holding back inflation.
Jack Gray: "by 1945 about 40 per cent of their basic needs were supplied by [the garrison system]".
1941-1945, rectification campaign ensured Maoist ideology, with no deviation, was established.
"Mass line" meant polices were taken from the people.
Overall successful in removing communist factions and pro-Russian groups.
CCP had good military leadership with international reputation - single largest campaign of the Sino-Japanese War that had a brutal retaliation from the Japanese; "kill all, burn all, loot all" policy.
Mao used guerrilla assaults with propaganda to promote them as real nationalists.
Mao said Jiang was nothing more than a puppet of the Western imperialists - fed the long-held anti-foreign and anti-imperialist popular feeling in China.
CCP powerful enough to exit guerilla tactics and engage in conventional fighting.
Polarisation of international political context in Cold War meant China could not be an internal affair, it was part of a larger Soviet-American effort to establish post-war power.
Both super powers wanted stable China, weakened Japan, and a coalition GMD-CCP government.
The Americans had economic and strategic interests in China, and they had supported the GMD from the first phase of the civil war.
USA provided Jiang with almost $3 billion in aid and large supplies of arms throughout WWII.
At the beginning of the second stage of the civil war, the Americans transported GMD forces by sea and air to the north of China, and US troops occupied Tianjin and Beijing to hold them until the GMD were ready.
Some historians believe that more military commitment from USA may have 'saved' China from communism.
Americans were held responsible by Jiang for pressurizing him to agree to truces at critical times during his war on the CCP.
Americans' mere presence gave Mao excellent anti-GMD propaganda.
After civil war, CCP consolidated its control in China
CCP pursued key ideas they had initiated in Yanan
One of key legacies of Chinese Civil War is continued authoritarian rule by CCP
China remains a single-party state in which individual rights and freedoms are suppressed
In 1989, when young protesters on streets of Tienanmen Square, Beijing, were forcibly dispersed with guns and tanks, the battles of the war were used to justify the actions of the state
Although CCP's victory should have been viewed as a victory for the spread of communism and for the USSR, Stalin feared Mao as a rival for the leadership of the communist world, and he had not wanted the Cold War to spread to Asia
Jiang's GMD would have recognized disputed border territory along frontiers in Manchuria and Xinjiang as Soviet
Fundamentally, Stalin did not view Maoism as 'genuinely revolutionary' and did not agree with Mao's 'hybrid' ideology, which was a mix of traditional Chinese culture and Marxism
Mao became convinced that Stalin planned to create a divided and weak China, which would leave the USSR dominant in Asia
Mao saw Stalin's policies as rooted in self-interest rather than true revolutionary doctrine
Nevertheless, once CCP had won the civil war, Mao visited Moscow in 1950. This produced the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Alliance: the first treaty between the USSR and China
USSR and Soviet press praised Mao and the new People's Republic of China (PRC), excited about their victory. To the US, the USSR-China alliance was 'Moscow making puppets out of the Chinese'
Such good relations between USSR and China prompted a change in the construction of China: traditional buildings were pulled down for Soviet-style constructions and Soviet scientific technology was prioritized over Chinese technology
Sino-Soviet relations chilled again during the Korean War, however
Soviets gave material assistance to the one million Chinese troops engaged in battle, but despite this support for PRC intervention in the Korean War, Mao bitterly complained when the Soviets demanded that the Chinese pay for all weapons and materials they supplied
After death of Stalin, Sino-Soviet relations worsened dramatically
Mao's victory led to much anxiety in the US, and seemed at the time to shift the balance of power in the Cold War in the USSR's favor.
Many saw the Communists' victory as inevitable; nevertheless, as the Cold War intensified and McCarthyism took hold in the USA, state officials were accused of having 'lost' China.
Stalin was now seen as having been the mastermind behind Mao's CCP.
USA failed to understand the different types of communism or that there was increasing tension and hostility between Mao and Stalin.
USA also refused to recognize the PRC as a legitimate state.
USA backed Jiang Jieshi and the Chinese nationalists, who had fled at the end of the civil war to the island of Taiwan.
Mao's victory was a key reason for the passing of a vast new military budget to fund the struggle against the spread of communism, and also led USA into Korean War and conflict over Taiwan
However, by end of 1960s there was a radical change by Americans and communist Chinese in their policies and strategies towards each other... this period of dialogue became known as 'ping pong diplomacy'.
