English in Use/Spelling

Sound to spelling correspondences

The following table shows for each sound, the various spelling patterns used to denote it. The symbol "•" stands for an intervening consonant. The letter sequences are in order of frequency with the most common first. Some of these patterns are very rare or unique, such as 'au' for the ah sound in laugh.

Consonants

IPA	spelling	example
/p/	p, pp, ph, pe, gh	pill, happy, Phuket, tape, hiccough
/b/	b, bb, bh, be, p (in some dialects)	bit, rabbit, Bhutan, tribe, thespian
/t/	t, tt, ed, pt, th, ct, te	ten, bitter, topped, ptomaine, thyme, ctenoid, hate
/d/	d, dd, ed, dh, de, th (in some dialects)	dive, ladder, failed, dharma, made, them
/g/	g, gg, gue, gh, gu	go, stagger, catalogue, ghost, guilt
/k/	c, k, ck, ch, cc, qu, q, cq, cu, que, kk, kh, ke	cat, key, tack, chord, account, liquor, Iraq, acquaint, biscuit, mosque, trekker, khan, make
/m/	m, mm, mb, mn, mh, me	mine, hammer, climb, hymn, mho, lame
/n/	n, nn, kn, gn, pn, nh, cn, ne, mn, ng (in some dialects)	nice, funny, knee, gnome, pneumonia, piranha, cnidarian, vane, mnemonic, fighting
/ŋ/	ng, n, ngue, ngh	sing, link, tongue, Singh
/ɹ/	r, rr, wr, rh, rrh, re	ray, parrot, wrong, rhyme, diarrhea, more
/f/	f, ph, ff, gh, pph, u, th (in some dialects)	fine, physical, off, laugh, sapphire, BR lieutenant, thin
/v/	v, vv, f, ve	vine, savvy, of, have
/θ/	th, chth, phth, tth	thin, chthonic, phthisis, Matthew
/ð/	th, the	them, breathe
/s/	s, c, ss, sc, st, ps, sch, cc, se, ce, z (in some dialects)	song, city, mess, scene, listen, psychology, schism, flaccid, horse, juice, citizen
/z/	s, z, x, zz, ss, ze, c (in some dialects)	has, zoo, xylophone, fuzz, scissors, breeze, electricity
/ʃ/	sh, ti, ci, ssi, si, ss, ch, s, sci, ce, sch, sc	shin, nation, special, mission, expansion, tissue, machine, sugar, conscience, ocean, schist, crescendo
/ʒ/	si, s, g, z, j, zh, ti, sh (in some dialects)	division, leisure, genre, seizure, jeté, Zhytomyr, equation, Pershmg
/tʃ/	ch, t, tch, ti, c, cz, tsch	chin, nature, batch, mention, cello, Czech, Deutschmark
/dʒ/	g, j, dg, d, di, gi, ge, dj, gg	magic, jump, ledger, graduate, soldier, Belgian, dungeon, Djibouti, suggest
/h/	h, wh, j, ch	he, whom, fajita, chutzpah
/j/	y, i, j, ll	yes, onion, hallelujah, tortilla
/l/	l, ll, lh, le	line, hall, Lhasa, rule
/w/	w, u, o, ou, wh (in most dialects)	we, queen, choir, Ouija board, what
/ʍ/	wh (in some dialects)	wheel

Vowels

IPA	spelling	example
/i/	e, y, ee, ea, e•e, i•e, ie, ei, ei•e, ey, ae, ay, oe, eo, is, eip, ie▪e, i, ea▪e, it, eigh, ois	be, city, bee, beach, cede, machine, field, deceit, deceive, key, Caesar, quay, amoeba, people, debris, receipt, believe, ski, leave, esprit, Raleigh, chamois
/ɪ/	i, i•e, a•e, y, ie, ui, ei, ee, e, ia, u, o, u▪e, eig, ie•e	bit, give, damage, myth, mischief, build, counterfeit, been, pretty, carriage, busy, women, minute, sovereign, sieve
/u/	oo, u, o, u•e, ou, ew, ue, o•e, ui, eu, oe, ough, wo, ioux, ieu, ault, oup	tool, luminous, who, flute, soup, jewel, true, lose, fruit, maneuver, canoe, through, two, Sioux, US lieutenant, Sault Sainte Marie, coup
/ʊ/	u, oo, ou, o, w	full, look, should, wolf, cwm
/ei/	a, a•e, ai, ay, eigh, ea, ei, ey, au, et, er, ee, aigh, ie, eig, eg	paper, rate, rain, pay, eight, steak, veil, obey, gauge, ballet, dossier, matinee, straight, US lingerie, reign, thegn
/ə/	a, e, o, u, ai, ou, eig, y, ah, ough, gh	another, anthem, awesome, atrium, mountain, callous, foreign, beryl, Messiah, BR borough, Edinburgh
/o(u)/	o, o•e, oa, ow, ou, oe, oo, eau, oh, ew, au, aoh, ough	so, bone, boat, know, soul, foe, brooch, beau, oh, sew, mauve, pharoah, furlough
/ɛ/	e, ea, a, ai, ie, eo, u, ae, ay, ei, ue, eb, eg	met, weather, many, said, friend, jeopardy, bury, aesthetic, says, heifer, guess, debt, phlegm
/æ/	a, au, ai, a▪e, al, ag, ach	hand, laugh, plaid, have, salmon, diaphragm, drachm
/ʌ/	u, o, ou, o•e, oo, oe	sun, son, touch, come, flood, does
/ɔ/	a, au, aw, ough, augh, oa, al, uo	fall, author, jaw, bought, caught, broad, walk, BR fluorine
/ɑ/	o, a, eau, ach	lock, watch, bureaucracy, yacht
/ai/	i•e, i, y, igh, ie, ei, eigh, uy, ai, ey, ye, eye, y▪e, ae, ais, is, ig, ic, ay	fine, Christ, try, high, tie, eidos, height, buy, ailurophobia, geyser, dye, eye, type, maestro, aisle, isle, sign, indict, tayra
/ɑr/	ar, er, ear, a•e, aa	car, sergeant, heart, are, bazaar
/εr/	er, ar, ere, are, aire, eir, air, aa	stationery, stationary, where, ware, millionaire, heir, hair, Aaron
/ɔɪ/	oi, oy, aw, uoy oy•e	foil, toy, lawyer, buoy, gargoyle
/aʊ/	ou, ow, ough, au	out, now, bough, tau
/ɚ/	er, or, ur, ir, yr, our, ear, err, eur, yrrh, ar, oeu, olo	fern, worst, turn, thirst, myrtle, courage, earth, err, amateur, myrrh, grammar, hors d'oeuvre, colonel
/yu/	u, u•e, eu, ue, iew, eau, ieu, ueue, ui, ewe, ew	music*, use, feud, cue, view, beautiful*, adieu*, queue, nuisance*, ewe, few, * in some dialects