Interesting social sciences/Geographical direction, functionalism, the school of conflict and social‐Darwinism in macro‐sociology
The functionalism edit
The main idea of functionalism: each organization, each custom, each idea and each belief have own function in the society.
Authors of functionalism: Herbert Spencer, Émile Durkheim, Bronisław Malinowski, Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, Robert K. Merton, Piotr Sztompka, Talcott Parsons.
Bronisław Malinowski and Alfred Radcliffe-Brown were anthropologists and they proved this main idea on the example of the customs, discovered by them in the primitive societies of Melanesia and Andaman Islands. In opinion of this authors the social phenomena, which do not have own function, for example, conflict is dysfunction and conflict must disappear. In the opinion of Émile Durkheim, the refusal of man from the performance of own family and religious functions leads to the solitude and, after all, to the suicide. Thus, society revenges by person for the refusal from the performance of own functions. Function of crime consists that punishment for this crime allows by people to confirm rules, the forbidding crime. Division of labor between people didn't exist in primitive society where people were similar at each other. Public opinion soars above the people and this public opinion dictates to people behavior in the contemporary society.
Conclusions: the mistakes of the functionalism are the underestimation by the role of conflicts in the society, the use of excessively abstract notions and the absence of the classification of the steps of the development of society.
Conflict theories edit
The main idea of conflict theories: social conflicts are inevitable, but this conflicts must be settled. Lewis A. Coser considered that the conflicts give road to large innovations, the conflicts prevent the “ossification” of society and conflicts are reason of the developments of society.
In the opinion of Lewis A. Coser, the functions of the conflicts, consist in the fact that,
• conflicts promote by the discharge of tension between people and conflicts are "diversion channels",
• people know each other through the conflicts better.
Ralf Dahrendorf considered that the conflict is result of resistance to the relations of supremacy and subordination that conflicts are the generator of changes that the suppression of conflict leads to its aggravation, and settlement of conflict leads to the controlled evolution. Person which is subordinate on the work can quiet his vanity by the fact that he will become leader and controller in off-duty hours (in the sport command, in the church community, in the party organization, and so on.). It is impossible to influence on the reasons of the conflicts, but it is possible to reduce intensity of course of the conflicts. State, law court, press ‐ these institutes settle conflicts. Theodor Geiger considers that methods, tools and technology of class struggle have been officially recognized and legislatively issued by society in 20 century, thanks to it they are put under control. Class struggle proceeds by certain rules today and therefore class struggle have lost own edge. Capital and labor conclude mutual compromises, capital and labor conduct the negotiations about solution of disputes and thus capital and labor determine the working conditions (level of wages and the duration of workday). The Socialist Revolution does not threaten the West longer; therefore Marx had made a mistake in his forecasts. There are three methods of solution of conflict (method of avoidance, method of conquest or method of subjugations). Authors of conflict theories: Lewis A. Coser, Georg Simmel, Ralf Dahrendorf, Theodor Geiger.
In my opinion, the conflict can be settled if loser recognize fact that loser had become the object of control from the side of winner or loser had conceded own sphere of influence to the winner. The purpose to settle the conflict is an impracticable task until moment this recognition this fact by the loser in the conflict. But It is possible to settle only a question about the price for readiness to obey.
Social‐Darwinism edit
The idea about struggle for existence and natural selection in biology and sociology edit
The idea of social evolution through natural selection was formulated by Thomas Robert Malthus for first time. In his opinion, the systems of assistance for the poor man are ineffective. His ideas were used as justification for amendment to he New Poor Law in 1834 in England, this poor men were placed to terms of brutal regime for Workhouses. Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace had formulated its idea about the struggle for existence after reading the book by Thomas Malthus.
Thomas Robert Malthus as a founder of science about population growth edit
Its main book is “An Essay on the Principle of Population”. Thomas Robert Malthus affirmed that food’s production growths in the world in arithmetical progression (1,2,3,4, 5 ...), whereas population of Earth growths in geometric progression (1,2,4, 8, 16 …). This leads to a situation when most of people will meet with the threat of starvation inevitably. The strength and cruel men will be able to survive in such conditions only. These ideas incited by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace to the establishment in biology theories about the struggle for existence and natural selection.
That people could avoid poverty and starvation, epidemics and wars for a piece of bread, Еhomas Malthus has proposed the following measures for a solution of the problem of overpopulation:
- refusal of marriage of poor people,
- respect for strict moral standards before marriage,
- refusal of programs of the social help to the poor.
Further, the idea of control above fertility as a means of struggle with the disproportionate increase of quantity for population had become to play a central role in the concept of named Neo-Malthusianism. People are located in the social hierarchy on the principle of most adapted, elite is the most adapted people, the poor men are the least adapted people.
The theory of biological evolution by Charles Darwin edit
According to this theory Charles Darwin, four factors of living beings operate in the biosphere:
• Heredity.
• Variation.
• Struggle for existence,
• Natural selection of the most adapted living beings.
The essence of this theory is expressed in the following theses:
• There is a huge scope of individual alteration of signs within one specie. There are no two absolutely identical living beings.
• All living organisms have the ability to quick reproduction. If there were no extermination, that the posterity of one pair can cover all Earth quickly.
• Living resources are limited therefore there is a struggle for existence, for the place under the sun (for life and an opportunity to have posterity) between individuals of one specie and between individuals of different species or struggle with an environment.
• The strongest, most adapted beings survive in this struggle; these beings have those deviations which turned out advantageous accidentally in these conditions of environment. Deviations arise in the heredity accidentally, as if God play in dice. Descendants of survived being inherit useful deviation and these descendants turn out more adapted to these conditions of environment.
• Survival and primary reproduction of the adapted living beings is a natural selection.
• Natural selection of separate living beings of one specie in different conditions of the environment leads to a divergence of signs and to formation of new species.
One difficult problem was detected within the theory of evolution under the life of Darwin already. Mathematician Fleeming Jenkin indicated that favorable deviations should dissolve under reproduction. Founder of genetics Gregor Mendel had decided this problem. Gregor Mendel has proved that specie signs written in their genes cannot dissolve under reproduction, and specie signs are transferred or specie signs are nor transferred to posterity in invariable entities. There are dominant genes and no dominant genes. The dominant gene suppresses recessive gene under reproduction, but recessive gene can show in the second and following generations in invariable entities.
Social Darwinism and racism edit
The main thought of Social Darwinism: the mechanism of social evolution does not differ from mechanism of biological evolution, therefore, only strongest men survives in society. Thus, factors evolution and in society, and in the biosphere are heredity, variation, the struggle for existence and natural selection.
Authors of social Darwinism: Thomas Malthus, Herbert Spencer, Arthur de Gobineau , Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Ludwig Woltmann, Georges Vacher de Lapouge, Francis Galton, Ludwig Gumplowicz.
The Nazis had plausible scientific explanation of own monstrous experiments. Nazism was beaten during World War II decisively but Nazism was not refuted scientifically. Scientific denial of social Darwinism and racism as scientific fundamentals of Nazism, is the purpose of the statement given subjects. This purpose becomes especially relevant in connection with the revival of Nazism even in Russia in the form of Chechen nationalism.
The idea of evolution through natural selection flew in the air in the 19th century. Cousin of Charles Darwin Francis Galton had founded a new science ‐ eugenics as science about selection of humanity with help of artificial selection. That to select high-gifted human race, it is necessary to create material stimuluses for encouragement of marriage and acquisition by children of those who will undergo the procedure of intellectual testing successfully. These ideas have found application in fascist Germany where "the racial hygiene" has found the embodiment in examination on thoroughbredness, compulsory sterilization and destruction "defective" men in concentration camps and gas chambers.
Darwin theory made the stunning success in biology. Some sociologists who are conditionally united within such direction as social Darwinism have solved with help of a method of analogy to apply the principles of biological evolution to society and by that to repeat scientific success of Charles Darwin. Herbert Spencer considered that the Universe, society, social institutes and the person undergo evolution under the law of survival of the strongest therefore Spencer criticized the government for subsidies for the poor. People and the organizations have to develop, relying only on own forces, weak men have to die or "to leave a scene". These ideas were very close to the American colonists in the Wild West where losers perished simply.
Arthur de Gobineau considered that the death of all civilizations begins because of impossibility to retain the purity of race long terms that ethnic mixtures had led to degenerate of humanity, that there is an unavoidable hierarchy of races, that the white race is the most beautiful and strong, that family of the Aryans is the highest among representatives of the white race. According to Arthur de Gobineau, Negroes are too sensitive and unable to rational self‐control, and "the yellow race" is imbued with a utilitarizm, diligence, search of advantage and benefit therefore heroic rushes and high achievements are unknown to "the yellow race". The white race is historic race only, white race is the most beautiful, intelligent and strong. Just the representatives of white race had created all great civilizations. The Aryans is a race of the rulers, which cared about the purity of own breed, for example, with help of prohibition to conclude the marriage between representatives of different castes in India. Sometimes facts contradicted to theory of Arthur de Gobineau, for example, Arthur de Gobineau named the traditional version of the Greek‐Persian wars as the monstrous lie in his book “The history of the Persians”("Historie des Perses"), because Aryans of Darius 1 and Xerxes I could not be worse then “semitezed” Greeks.
Anthropologist Georges Vacher de Lapouge considered that blond dolichocephalous men is the best race type thus blond hair and “long” skull is signs of the best race, the length of scull was defined with help of “cephalic index” as the ratio of the maximum width (bipareital diameter or BPD, side to side) of the head of an organism (human or animal) multiplied by 100 divided by its maximum length (occipitofrontal diameter or OFD, front to back) Width and length of the skulls are measured with help of a special vernier caliper. The concept of “cephalic index” was introduced by the Swedish anatomist Anders Retzius in the 1840. Otto Ammon organizes large number of anthropological researches among recruits and students. Sometimes the facts contradicted to this hypothesis, for example, some geniuses turn out to brachicephalous men (“roundhead”) and then Otto Ammon was forced to write them into false brachicephalous men. Ludwig Gumplowicz considered that the unit of social selection is not man, but the unit of social selection is ethnic group or social class. Ludwig Gumplowicz considered that the State is organization domination of the minority over majority, that the State had arisen as the result of the struggle between hordes.
Social Darwinism has a deep ideological relationship with the racist writers and antropologists pretend for scientific character. An entity of ideas this racist writers consist in that there are the best races and defective races, so it need organize an artificial selection in concentration camps in the form of destruction or sterilization of defective people. Houston Stewart Chamberlain and Ludwig Woltmann were the representatives of this direction. Houston Stewart Chamberlain called to the revival of a mythical “Arian” spirit. Houston Stewart Chamberlain had announced in work “The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century” (1899) the creation of the Teutonic culture as the highest achievement of European history. These ideas ensured by Houston Stewart Chamberlain the title of “popular thinker” in the Third Reich. Ludwig Voltmann claimed on basis “genealogic” research about German origin such notable creators of Italy and France as Dante Alighieri, Leonardo de Vinci, Titian, Torquato Tasso, Denis Diderot,Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
From the point of view of Nazism if the German nation wished to remain, then it as to "pure race", it was recommended to destroy Jews as representatives of "defective race". Adolf Hitler had named own arrival to power as racial revolution. Adolf Hitler considered that the State is just a tool of struggle for interests of race. Adolf Hitler considered that the Marxism plans consecutive transfer of power in the world in hands of Jews, that еhe October revolution of 1917 in Russia is the Jewish revolution. Adolf Hitler had adopted in 1933 Decree about hereditary health according to which on which operations on sterilization were performed in clinics in relation to disabled people and in prison hospitals in relation to recidivists. The final decision about the sterilization has been taken by special courts consisting of two doctors and one judge which were appointed officially. As wrote E. Ristov in 1935, sterilization’s operation could not be delayed even in connection with pregnancy of victims, with that the pregnancy of victim must be aborted. According to the decision of such court at the woman ovaries either were removed, or tied. She was forbidden the departure abroad that to restore the functions of ovaries even with help of foreign surgeons. Process on killing of individuals in case of their incurable disease has been begun under the decree of 1939. Professor Jena’s University in period of Nazi Government G. Gunter had named heritages anthropology’s features of the Nordic race: the high height (average height of men ‐174 centimeters), narrow face, high nose with narrow nostrils, narrow mouth, coming forward chin, which produces the impression of courage, light skin with flush, blond soft and not very thick hair. Incidentally, himself Adolf Hitler and the Minister of propagandaJoseph Goebbels are unlikely to be able to undergo the procedure of examinations on thoroughbredness, since Adolf Hitler and Goebbels was brunet and Adolf Hitler had low forehead. Therefore, Joseph Goebbels made by ideal of Aryan women his wife – high blond with blue eyes which has many children.
Criticism of social Darwinism and racism edit
There is a transition from prevalence of distribution of fight for life to prevalence of distribution of the conflicts for the status of the controller and a sphere of influence in the course of human history. Representatives of social Darwinism did not saw these differences, this representatives of social‐Darwinism considered that a fight only for own life and own existence exists in society, as well as in the biosphere. Therefore the attempt by the representatives of social Darwinism to apply the theory of Charles Darwin into society had finished unsuccessfully. Social Darwinism had given incorrect prognosises and incorrect recipes of development of society owing to these reasons.
Mechanism of social evolution differs from mechanism of biological evolution in following signs:
• Conflict happens in society most often not for life, but for the status of the controller, for sphere of influence and for resources, therefore, loser does not die in society usually and loser becomes object of control.
• If development takes place through stages (formations) in society, that there are periods of the predomination of any species, such as dinosaurs in the biosphere. If civilizations are the unit of selection in society that biological species are the unit of selection in the biosphere. If the essence of any species can be expressed with help of a set of information put in genes of representatives of this specie and a set of physiological signs, then essence of any civilization – a set of social inventions which are applied at construction of social structure of this civilization.
For example, social structure of Russian society has developed at the expense of assimilation of such Western social inventions, as the market competition, private property and representative democracy as a result of reforms Boris Yeltsin. The creation by a system of global world will not rescind, but rather will exacerbate this global rivalry between civilizations, where civilization‐leaders will change each other more often, for example, speed of development of China advance speed of development of Western Europe and the USA today.
• The strongest and most adapted organism wins in biosphere, and such man wins in society which is armed by the most effective tools.
• The speed of social evolution is more then the speed of biological evolution in one thousand times approximately. The Life had arisen on Earth about 4 billion years ago, and society had arisen 40‐30 thousand years ago.
• If generator of changes is a mechanism of genetic variation in the biosphere that generator of changes is creative ability of human mind in society.
The main mistake of racist writers was that this racist writers called, in fact, to establish privileges for the “highest” race and to building of caste order. These privileges limit course of the conflicts that results, on the one hand, in social stagnation, to falling of competitiveness and to growth of dependant moods among oligarchs. On the other hand, establishment of a caste system leads to switching off of lifts of social mobility when born governors from bottom of society can't make legal career and born governors are forced to arrange social revolution for the purpose of physical extermination of oligarchs. The caste system is constructed on "powder keg" always, on the insuperable conflict between "upstarts" and "degenerates".
Racist writers had proposed to build the world’s domination of the German nation, and Adolf Hitler had tried to embody this ideal to life, but Adolf Hitler had suffered the full crash. Adolf Hitler had built the tyranny and totalitarianism, which are more backward form of government and backward political regime compared with a representative democracy. Fascist and eugenics experiments to selection of highest race with help of artificial selection contradict to the principles of humanism and democracy. The Nazis tried to organize in practice the physical destruction of Jews and Gypsies. 6 millions the Jews perish as a result of Nazi experiment roughly. Attempt of Adolf Hitler to build in practice an utopia about world’s domination of the German nation and Attempt of Adolf Hitler to begin the second world war had caused to the deaths of 55 million men that including 27 million 500 000 Russians approximately. The crash of the fascist experiment had showed that attempt to organize the artificial selection of people is doomed to failure.
Humanity builds the global world today, where inevitable migration and intermingling of various nationalities and races happens. There are not the place for the policy of “racial hygiene” (artificial selection of nations with help of forced sterilization and destroying of peoples in concentration camps) in the global world. Nationalism of advanced Nations was beaten decisively as a result of the second world war, but nationalism of backward Nations threatens to world much more today. Any Empire, such as Roman Empire, Empire of Alexander Macedonian, Russia or the USA arises with help of the conquests and any Empire is a melting pot, where nation mix. Propaganda of nationalism in such multinational countries like Russia and USA can lead to civil war, and civil war is worst for this countries.
Conclusion: the results of the Nazi experiments to embodying in life of social Darwinism theory had horrified the entire world. Еhe theory of evolution of Charles Darwin is only a special case of the my general theory of Interrelation between social conflict and social control.